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Arab–American relations

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Arab–American relations comprise a rich and nuanced narrative shaped by centuries of interaction, diplomacy, and exchange between the United States and the Arab world. Rooted in historical trade routes and cultural connections dating back to antiquity, the modern iteration of these relations has been profoundly influenced by geopolitical dynamics, economic interests, and cultural exchanges. The United States' engagement with the Arab world gained significant momentum in the aftermath of World War II, as American interests in the region expanded alongside the emergence of Arab nationalism and the pursuit of self-determination. Throughout the Cold War era, the United States navigated intricate alliances and rivalries within the Arab world, often driven by strategic considerations, such as access to oil resources and containment of Soviet influence.

Flag of the Arab League
Flag of the United States

The Arab–Israeli conflict, catalyzed by the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948, emerged as a central focal point, shaping diplomatic relations and regional dynamics for decades to come. The Gulf War, the Iraq War, and the ongoing Israeli–Palestinian conflict have further underscored the complexities and challenges inherent in Arab–American relations, testing the resilience of alliances and prompting diplomatic efforts to foster stability and peace. Amidst these geopolitical currents, cultural exchanges, educational initiatives, and economic partnerships have served as pillars of engagement, fostering understanding and cooperation between Arab nations and the United States.[1][2]

Early Relations

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Early Moroccan-American Relations

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Main article: Morocco–United States relations
Main article: Moroccan–American Treaty of Friendship
 
 
Moroccan-American Treaty of Friendship of 1787.

The historical ties between the Kingdom of Morocco and the United States of America date back to the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), notably deepening in 1777 when Sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah became the first monarch to offer aid to the United States, hence making Morocco the first major country or kingdom to recognize American Independence.[3][4][5][6]

Formal U.S. diplomatic relations with Morocco began in 1787 when the Confederation Congress ratified a Treaty of Peace and Friendship between the two nations which had been signed earlier in 1786.[7][8] Renegotiated in 1836, the treaty is still in force, constituting the longest unbroken treaty relationship in U.S. history, and Tangier is home to the oldest U.S. diplomatic property in the world. Now a museum, the Tangier American Legation Museum is also the only building outside of the U.S. that is now a National Historic Landmark.[9] The Treaty was executed in Europe by American envoys John Adams and Thomas Jefferson, later receiving ratification from the Confederation Congress (operating under the earlier Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union government) in July 1787.[10] As of 2020, the treaty has endured transatlantic pressures and tensions for over 235 years, establishing itself as the longest unbroken treaty alliance in the history of the United States.[11] Morocco continues to stand as one of America's enduring and trusted allies in North Africa.

Among the correspondence exchanged between America and Morocco, one notable instance was a letter from the inaugural President George Washington to Muhammed Ibn Abdullah. Dated December 1, 1789, during the early months of his presidency, Washington addressed issues of authority and leadership in the United States, as well as the communication breakdown between Morocco and America. In the letter, Washington expressed regret for delays in communication, attributing them to governmental transitions and a desire to establish clear terms of engagement. He also commended Muhammed Ibn Abdullah's diplomatic efforts in protecting American ships from pirates, recognizing the vulnerability of the fledgling United States, which lacked naval power at the time. Morocco's willingness to engage in diplomatic negotiations marked a significant milestone, as it became the first Amazigh, Arab, African, or Muslim state to formalize a treaty with America, despite America's inability to safeguard its vessels in the Mediterranean.

Barbary Wars

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Main article: Barbary Wars
 
Captain William Bainbridge paying tribute to the Dey of Algiers, 1800

The Barbary Wars were a series of conflicts fought between the United States and the Arab Barbary States of North Africa, namely the Ottoman provinces of Tripolitania, Algiers, and Tunis, as well as the independent Sultanate of Morocco. These wars took place between 1801 and 1815 and were primarily sparked by the Barbary States' practice of piracy and extortion against American merchant ships in the Mediterranean Sea.[12]

During this time, the Barbary States, which included present-day Libya, Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco, held strategic positions along the North African coast and controlled crucial trade routes. They demanded tribute payments from European nations and the United States in exchange for safe passage for their ships. However, the demands became increasingly exorbitant, and the Barbary rulers resorted to capturing ships and enslaving their crews for ransom.

Faced with mounting losses and the violation of their sovereignty, the United States, under Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, decided to confront the Barbary States militarily rather than continue paying tribute. This led to the First Barbary War (1801–1805) against Tripoli, followed by the Second Barbary War (1815) against Algiers.

 
USS Philadelphia burning at the Battle of Tripoli Harbor during the First Barbary War in 1804

The conflict was characterized by naval engagements, most notably the actions of the fledgling United States Navy's small fleet against the larger and more established Barbary corsair fleets. The American navy achieved notable successes, including the famous victories of the USS Enterprise and USS Constitution.

The Barbary Wars marked a significant moment in Arab–American relations. They demonstrated America's determination to protect its interests abroad and its unwillingness to submit to extortion. Additionally, the wars highlighted the complexities of diplomatic relations in the Mediterranean region, as the Barbary States were nominally under Ottoman control but operated independently.

In the aftermath of the Barbary Wars, the United States negotiated treaties with the Barbary States, securing safe passage for American ships in exchange for annual payments. These treaties helped to stabilize the region and allowed for increased American trade in the Mediterranean.

Post-World War II

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Arab–American relations prior to World War II were limited. However, the first country to officially recognize the United States was Morocco. Moreover, in comparison to European powers such as Britain and France which had managed to colonise almost all of the Arab world after defeating the Ottoman Empire in 1918, the United States was ‘popular and respected throughout the region’.[13] Indeed, ‘Americans were seen as good people, untainted by the selfishness and duplicity associated with the Europeans’.[14] American missionaries had brought modern medicine and set up educational institutions all over the Arab World. In addition to this, the US had provided the Arab states with highly skilled petroleum engineers.[15] Thus, there were some connections, which were made between the United States and the Arab states before the Second World War. All in all, the American-Arab relations have had their ups and downs, with each conflict changing the relations. At the moment, Arab–American relations are very strong economically, where the Arab world is the third largest exporter to the US, and the US is the first largest importer in the Arab world. Nevertheless, these strong economic relations fail to show in the political arena.

Arab–Israeli Conflict

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The first real incident of deterioration between the Arab world and the US was when the US recognized Israel and supported it in the United Nations. Furthermore, "the first state to extend diplomatic recognition to Israel was the United States; the Soviet Union and several Western nations quickly followed suit. No Arab state, however, recognized Israel."[16] The United States denounced the Arab intervention in the former Mandatory Palestine that took place shortly after the Israeli Declaration of Independence in 1948.[17] This issue has decreased the US's reputation and role within the Arab streets, hate towards the US increased, and the US was seen as the 'Friend of the Arabs Enemy,' Israel, thus becoming the Enemy.

Iran–Iraq War

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Main article: United States support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq war

The war between Iran and Iraq was another step in Arab–American relations, where the US supported Iraq in its war against the Islamic Republic of Iran. Among major powers, the United States' policy was to "tilt" toward Iraq by reopening diplomatic channels, lifting restrictions on the export of dual-use technology, overseeing the transfer of third party military hardware, and providing operational intelligence on the battlefield. Despite this, the US was also involved in a covert and illegal arms deal, providing sanctioned Iran with weaponry. This political scandal became known as the Iran–Contra affair.[18]

Gulf War

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Main article: Gulf War
 
Arab Coalition Forces, from Egypt, Syria, Oman and Kuwait during Operation Desert Storm.

The US played a significant role in the Gulf War. When Iraq invaded Kuwait, several other Arab countries decided to enter the war on the side of the US, leader of the anti-Iraqi coalition. This resulted in an image of the US as a liberator, particularly among the wealthy Gulf monarchies of Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Bahrain, Qatar, and Kuwait. The US currently maintains several military bases in the region.[citation needed]

11th September

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Main article: September 11 attacks

Iraq War

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Main article: Governmental positions on the Iraq War prior to the 2003 invasion of Iraq

The Arab League unanimously condemned the war, with the exception of Kuwait.[19] Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Saud publicly claimed that the U.S. military would not be authorized to use Saudi Arabia's soil in any way to attack Iraq.[20] However, this was later revealed to have been a front, as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and some other Arab states did, in fact, provide support to American troops, but they did not wish to risk offending Saddam pre-war by making those statements publicly.[citation needed] After ten years of U.S. presence in Saudi Arabia, cited among reasons by Saudi-born Osama bin Laden for his September 11, 2001 al-Qaeda attacks on America, most of U.S. forces were withdrawn from Saudi Arabia in 2003.[21] For the duration of the war, the Saudi public remained strongly against the US action, regardless of a UN mandate. Prior to the war, the government repeatedly attempted to find a diplomatic solution, generally agreeing with the US position on Saddam's menace, even going so far as to urge Saddam to go into voluntary exile—a suggestion that angered him a great deal.[citation needed]

 
A Marine Corps M1 Abrams tank patrols a Baghdad street after its fall in 2003 during Operation Iraqi Freedom

Anti-Arabism

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Main article: Anti-Arabism § United States

William A. Dorman, writing in the compedium The United States and the Middle East: A Search for New Perspectives (1992) notes that, in the United States, "anti-Semitism is no longer socially acceptable, at least among the educated classes. No such social sanctions exist for anti-Arabism."[22]

In the mid-1970s, a prominent Russian-born American libertarian author, scholar and philosopher, Ayn Rand, advocated strong anti-Arab sentiment following the Arab-Israeli War of 1973: "The Arabs are one of the least developed cultures. They are typically nomads. Their culture is primitive, and they resent Israel because it's the sole beachhead of modern science and civilization on their continent. When you have civilized men fighting savages, you support the civilized men, no matter who they are."[23]

During the 1991 Gulf War, anti-Arab sentiments increased in the United States.[24] Arab Americans have experienced a backlash as result of terrorist attacks, including events where Arabs were not involved, like the Oklahoma City bombing, and the explosion of TWA Flight 800.[25] According to a report prepared by the Arab American Institute, three days after the Oklahoma City bombing "more than 200 serious hate crimes were committed against Arab Americans and American Muslims. The same was true in the days following September 11."[25]

According to a 2001 poll of Arab Americans conducted by the Arab American Institute, 32% of Arab Americans reported having been subjected to some form of ethnic-based discrimination during their lifetimes, while 20% reported having experienced an instance of ethnic-based discrimination since September 11. Of special concern, for example, is the fact that 45% of students and 37% of Arab Americans of the Muslim faith report being targeted by discrimination since September 11.[25]

According to the FBI and Arab groups, the number of attacks against Arabs, Muslims, and others mistaken as such rose considerably after the 9/11 attacks.[26] Hate crimes against people of Middle Eastern origin or descent increased from 354 attacks in 2000, to 1,501 attacks in 2001.[24] Among the victims of the backlash was a Middle Eastern man in Houston, Texas who was shot and wounded after an assailant accused him of "blowing up the country"[25] and four immigrants shot and killed by a man named Larme Price who confessed to killing them as "revenge" for the September 11 attacks.

Anti-Americanism

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Main article: Anti-Americanism § Middle East

For the most part, it is the rise of alternatives, ushered in by modernization, that threatens traditional societies and generates anti-American reaction. The stability of traditional society (like that of modern totalitarian systems) rests on the lack of alternatives, on the lack of choice. Choice is deeply subversive-culturally, politically, psychologically.

The recent outburst of murderous anti-Americanism has added a new dimension to the phenomenon, or at any rate, throws into relief the intense hatred it may encapsulate. The violence of September 11 shows that when anti-Americanism is nurtured by the kind of indignation and resentment that in [turn] is stimulated and sanctioned by religious convictions, it can become spectacularly destructive."[27]

In 2002 and in mid-2004 Zogby International polled the favorable/unfavorable ratings of the U.S. in Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco and the United Arab Emirates. In Zogby's 2002 survey, 76% of Egyptians had a negative attitude toward the United States, compared with 98% in 2004. In Morocco, 61% viewed the country unfavorably in 2002, but in two years following the U.S invasion of Iraq, that number has jumped to 88 percent. In Saudi Arabia, such responses rose from 87% in 2002 to 94% in June. Attitudes were virtually unchanged in Lebanon but improved slightly in the UAE, from 87% who said in 2002 that they disliked the United States to 73% in 2004.[28] However most of these countries mainly objected to foreign policies that they considered unfair.[28] According to the 2023 Arab Youth Survey conducted by Dubai-based public relations firm ASDA'A BCW, the United States ranked seventh among countries considered friendly, compared with China, which took second place.[29]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "1956: Egypt seizes Suez Canal". 26 July 1956.
  2. ^ "UN General Assembly Resolution 997: Withdrawal from Suez - 1956 - with Map".
  3. ^ "History of the U.S. and Morocco". U.S. Embassy & Consulate in Morocco. Retrieved 2020-04-18.
  4. ^ "Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah's Diplomatic Initiatives towards the United States 1777-1786: Direct Reasons". Morocco World News. 2012-03-20. Retrieved 2020-04-18.
  5. ^ Capitalizing on the Morocco-US Free Trade Agreement: A Road Map for Success. Peterson Institute. 2009. ISBN 9780881325812. Retrieved September 21, 2016.
  6. ^ Descos, Léon Eugène Aubin Coullard (1904). Le Maroc d'aujourd'hui [par] Eugène Aubin. Robarts - University of Toronto. Paris A. Colin. p. 237.
  7. ^ "A Guide To The United States' History Of Recognition, Diplomatic, And Consular Relations, By Country, Since 1776: Morocco". state.gov. Retrieved March 26, 2016.
  8. ^ "Avalon Project - The Barbary Treaties 1786-1816 - Treaty with Morocco June 28 and July 15, 1786".
  9. ^ "Why a 200-Year-Building in Morocco Is the Only National Historic Landmark Outside the U.S." smithsonianmag.com. 17 May 2021.
  10. ^ (Roberts and Roberts, 2008, pp. 189–223)
  11. ^ Ogot, General History of Africa, pp. 231–232.
  12. ^ "BBC - History - British History in depth: British Slaves on the Barbary Coast". www.bbc.co.uk.
  13. ^ Fawcett,L(2005) The International Relations of the Middle East UK: Oxford University Press p 284
  14. ^ Fawcett,L(2005) The International Relations of the Middle East UK: Oxford University Press p 285
  15. ^ Rugh, W, A (2005) American Encounters with Arabs: The Soft Power of U.S. Public Diplomacy in the Middle East U.S.: Praeger Publishers Inc. ISBN 978-0-275-98817-3 pp 25-26
  16. ^ McWilliams, W, C, Piotrowski, H, (6th ed.)(2005) The World since 1945: A History of International Relations U.S. Lynne Rienner Publishers p 154
  17. ^ Tucker, Spencer C. (2008). The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 528. ISBN 978-1-85109-841-5. Archived from the original on 20 March 2023. Retrieved 19 March 2016.
  18. ^ The Iran-Contra Affair 20 Years On. The National Security Archive (George Washington University), 2006-11-24
  19. ^ "CNN.com - Arab leaders declare opposition to war in Iraq - Mar. 2, 2003". edition.cnn.com. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
  20. ^ "Saudis Ban Attack on Iraq From Their Soil". Fox News. 2013-04-05. Archived from the original on 2013-04-05. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
  21. ^ Burkeman, Oliver (2003-04-30). "America signals withdrawal of troops from Saudi Arabia". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
  22. ^ William A. Dorman (1992). Hooshang Amirahmadi (ed.). The United States and the Middle East: A Search for New Perspectives. SUNY Press. p. 302. ISBN 0-7914-1225-3.
  23. ^ Ayn Rand Ford Hall Forum lecture, 1974, text published on the website of The Ayn Rand Institute "The Ayn Rand Institute: America at War: Israeli-Arab Conflict". Archived from the original on 2007-08-22. Retrieved 2007-09-07.
  24. ^ a b Oswald, Debra L. (September 2005). "Understanding Anti-Arab Reactions Post-9/11: The Role of Threats, Social Categories, and Personal Ideologies". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 35 (9): 1775–1799. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02195.x.
  25. ^ a b c d "Arab American Institute 2001 report submitted to the United States Commission on Civil Rights" (PDF). Arab American Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-03-07.
  26. ^ Terrorism – Council on Foreign Relations Archived February 7, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
  27. ^ Hollander, Paul The Politics of Envy Archived 2010-09-06 at the Wayback Machine, The New Criterion, November 2002. Retrieved 29 April 2007.
  28. ^ a b Linzer, Dafna (July 23, 2004). "Poll Shows Growing Arab Rancor at U.S". The Washington Post. p. A26.
  29. ^ Abdelbary, Mohammed (2023). "China surpasses US in popularity among Arab youth as Beijing expands Middle East footprint". CNN.
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