Attractant

An attractant is any chemical that attracts an organism, e.g. i) synthetic lures; ii) aggregation and sex pheromones (intraspecific interactions); and iii) synomone (interspecific interactions)

Synomone

An interspecific semiochemical that is beneficial to both interacting organisms, the emitter and receiver, e.g. floral synomone of certain Bulbophyllum species (Orchidaceae) attracts fruit fly males (Tephritidae: Diptera) as pollinators. In this true mutualistic inter-relationship, both organisms gain benefits in their respective sexual reproduction - i.e. orchid flowers are pollinated and the Dacini fruit fly males are rewarded with a sex pheromone precursor or booster; and the floral synomones, also act as rewards to pollinators, are in the form of phenylpropanoids (e.g. methyl eugenol)^[1] and phenylbutanoids (e.g. raspberry ketone^[2] zingerone^[3] and anisyl acetone/a combination of the three phenylbutanoids.^[4]

References

^ a) Tan, K.H., R. Nishida and Y.C. Toong (2002) Bulbophyllum cheiri's floral synomone lures fruit flies to perform pollination. Journal of Chemical Ecology 28:1161-1172.
b) Nishida, R., K.H. Tan, S.L. Wee, A.K.W. Hee and Toong, Y. C. (2004) Phenylpropanoids in the fragrance of the fruit fly orchid, Bulbophyllum cheiri, and their relationship to the pollinator, Bactrocera papayae. Biochemical Systematics & Ecology. 32: 245-252.
c) Tan, K.H., L.T. Tan, and R. Nishida (2006) Floral phenylpropanoid cocktail and architecture of Bulbophyllum vinaceum orchid in attracting fruit flies for pollination. Journal of Chemical Ecology 32: 2429-2441.
^ a) Tan, K.H. and R. Nishida (2005) Synomone or Kairomone? - Bulbophyllum apertum (Orchidaceae) flower releases raspberry ketone to attract Bactrocera fruit flies. Journal of Chemical Ecology. 31(3): 509-519.
b) Nakahira, M., H. Ono, S.L. Wee, K.H. Tan, and R. Nishida (2018) Floral synomone diversification of Bulbophyllum sibling species (Orchidaceae) in attracting fruit fly pollinators. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 81: 86-95. S2CID 91933950. S2CID 252403056. doi:10.1016/J.BSE.2018.10.002.
R. Raguso ORCID (2020) Don’t forget the flies: dipteran diversity and its consequences for floral ecology and evolution. Applied Entomology and Zoology. 55:1–7. doi:10.1007/s13355-020-00668-9. S2CID 210169152.
^ a) Tan, K.H. and R. Nishida (2000) Mutual reproductive benefits between a wild orchid, Bulbophyllum patens, and Bactrocera fruit flies via a floral synomone. Journal of Chemical Ecology 26: 533-546.
b) Tan, K.H. and R. Nishida (2007) Zingerone in the floral synomone of Bulbophyllum baileyi (Orchidaceae) attracts Bactrocera fruit flies during pollination. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 35: 334-341.
^ a) Katte, T., Tan, K.H., Su, Z.H., Ono, H. and Nishida, R. (2020) Floral fragrances in two closely related fruit fly orchids, Bulbophyllum hortorum and B. macranthoides (Orchidaceae): Assortments of phenylbutanoids to attract tephritid fruit fly species. Applied Entomology and Zoology 55 (1), 55-64.
b) Nishida, R., Howcroft, N.H., Tan, K.H., Su, Z.H. and Ono, H. (2022) Floral synomone components of fruit fly-attracting orchids, Bulbophyllum sinapis and B. hahlianum, in Papua New Guinea. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 105: (in press). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bse.2022.104481

[ref1-1] ) Tan, K.H., R. Nishida and Y.C. Toong (2002) Bulbophyllum cheiri's floral synomone lures fruit flies to perform pollination. Journal of Chemical Ecology 28:1161-1172.
b) Nishida, R., K.H. Tan, S.L. Wee, A.K.W. Hee and Toong, Y. C. (2004) Phenylpropanoids in the fragrance of the fruit fly orchid, Bulbophyllum cheiri, and their relationship to the pollinator, Bactrocera papayae. Biochemical Systematics & Ecology. 32: 245-252.
c) Tan, K.H., L.T. Tan, and R. Nishida (2006) Floral phenylpropanoid cocktail and architecture of Bulbophyllum vinaceum orchid in attracting fruit flies for pollination. Journal of Chemical Ecology 32: 2429-2441.

[ref2-2] ) Tan, K.H. and R. Nishida (2005) Synomone or Kairomone? - Bulbophyllum apertum (Orchidaceae) flower releases raspberry ketone to attract Bactrocera fruit flies. Journal of Chemical Ecology. 31(3): 509-519.
b) Nakahira, M., H. Ono, S.L. Wee, K.H. Tan, and R. Nishida (2018) Floral synomone diversification of Bulbophyllum sibling species (Orchidaceae) in attracting fruit fly pollinators. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 81: 86-95. S2CID 91933950. S2CID 252403056. doi:10.1016/J.BSE.2018.10.002.
R. Raguso ORCID (2020) Don’t forget the flies: dipteran diversity and its consequences for floral ecology and evolution. Applied Entomology and Zoology. 55:1–7. doi:10.1007/s13355-020-00668-9. S2CID 210169152.

[ref3-3] ) Tan, K.H. and R. Nishida (2000) Mutual reproductive benefits between a wild orchid, Bulbophyllum patens, and Bactrocera fruit flies via a floral synomone. Journal of Chemical Ecology 26: 533-546.
b) Tan, K.H. and R. Nishida (2007) Zingerone in the floral synomone of Bulbophyllum baileyi (Orchidaceae) attracts Bactrocera fruit flies during pollination. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology 35: 334-341.

[ref4-4] ) Katte, T., Tan, K.H., Su, Z.H., Ono, H. and Nishida, R. (2020) Floral fragrances in two closely related fruit fly orchids, Bulbophyllum hortorum and B. macranthoides (Orchidaceae): Assortments of phenylbutanoids to attract tephritid fruit fly species. Applied Entomology and Zoology 55 (1), 55-64.
b) Nishida, R., Howcroft, N.H., Tan, K.H., Su, Z.H. and Ono, H. (2022) Floral synomone components of fruit fly-attracting orchids, Bulbophyllum sinapis and B. hahlianum, in Papua New Guinea. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology, 105: (in press). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bse.2022.104481

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