Wikipedia

Convoy PQ 18 order of battle

See also: Convoy PQ 18

Convoy PQ 18 (2–21 September 1942) was an Arctic convoy of forty Allied freighters from Scotland and Iceland to Arkhangelsk in the Soviet Union during the Second World War. The convoy departed Loch Ewe, Scotland on 2 September 1942, rendezvoused with more ships and escorts at Iceland and arrived at Arkhangelsk on 21 September. An exceptionally large number of escorts were provided by the Royal Navy in Operation EV, including the first escort carrier to accompany an Arctic convoy. Detailed information on German intentions was provided by the code breakers at Bletchley Park and elsewhere, through Ultra signals decrypts and eavesdropping on Luftwaffe wireless communications. [1] The German B-Dienst code-breakers read some British signals and the Luftwaffe used the lull in convoys after Convoy PQ 17 (27 June – 10 July) to prepare a maximum effort with the Kriegsmarine.[2]

Convoy PQ 18
Part of Arctic Convoys of the Second World War

A depth-charge explosion near Convoy PQ 18
Date2–21 September 1942
Location
Arctic Ocean
75°N 40°E / 75°N 40°E / 75; 40 (Barents Sea)
Result Allied victory
Belligerents
United Kingdom United Kingdom
 United States
 Soviet Union		  Germany
Commanders and leaders
Robert Burnett Rolf Carls
Strength
40 merchant ships
40–50 escorts (in relays)
2 submarines
1 escort carrier
(12 fighters, 3 reconnaissance aircraft)		 12 U-boats
92 torpedo-bombers
120 bombers
long-range reconnaissance aircraft
Casualties and losses
550+ survivors rescued
13 merchant ships
4 Sea Hurricane fighters		 4 U-boats, 22–44 aircraft
A Sea Hurricane was washed overboard

From 12 to 21 September Convoy PQ 18 was attacked by bombers, torpedo-bombers, U-boats and mines, which sank thirteen ships at a cost of forty-four aircraft and four U-boats. The convoy was defended by escort ships and the aircraft of the escort carrier HMS Avenger which used signals intelligence gleaned from Ultra and Luftwaffe wireless frequencies to provide early warning of some air attacks and to attempt evasive routeing of the convoy around concentrations of U-boats. United States Navy Armed Guard and British Naval and Royal Artillery Maritime Regiment gunners were embarked on the freighters to operate anti-aircraft guns and barrage balloons, which made air attacks more difficult and because of inexperience, occasionally wounded men and damaged ships and cargo, with wild shooting.[3][4][5]

The convoy handed over its distant escorts and Avenger to the homeward bound Convoy QP 14 near Archangelsk on 16 September and continued with the close escort and local escorts, riding out a storm in the Northern Dvina estuary and the last attacks by the Luftwaffe, before reaching Archangelsk on 21 September. Several ships ran aground in the storm but all were eventually refloated; unloading the convoy took a month. Because of its losses and the transfer in November of its most effective remaining aircraft to the Mediterranean to oppose Operation Torch, the Luftwaffe effort could never be repeated.[6]

Aftermath

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Analysis

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In the official history (1956 [1962]) Stephen Roskill called Convoy PQ 18 an Allied success. The convoy operation brought 28 ships safely to their destinations and the Arctic convoy route, which had been suspended since the loss of Convoy PQ 17, was open again.[7] In 2001, Werner Rahn wrote that the Seekriegsleitung (SKL, Naval War Staff) had called the results "dearly bought and unsatisfactory".[8] In 2004, Richard Woodman referred to Convoy PQ 18 as a Pyrrhic victory.[9] The Luftwaffe torpedo-bomber attacks, while costly, had been highly effective and would have inflicted more losses had not the British Headache operators not given early warning of some attacks, which enabled Sea Hurricanes to be scrambled in time.[10] The Germans failed to prevent the convoy reaching Russia and their losses, particularly in trained pilots, were severe, reducing the ability of the Luftwaffe to repeat its anti-convoy operation. Attacks on Avenger had been defeated and the depth of the escort screen made torpedo attacks on the centre of the convoy extravagantly risky.[9] Coastal Command operations in support of Convoy PQ 18 and the returning convoy QP 14, involved 111 aircraft from 14 squadrons, which flew 279 sorties and logged 2,290 flying hours, most being taken up by the fights to and from the convoy.[11] In November, Luftflotte 5, the German air command in Norway and Finland, was ordered to transfer its Ju 88 and He 111 torpedo-bombers to the Mediterranean against Operation Torch, a decision which the British received through Ultra intercepts. Only the Heinkel 115 floatplanes, suitable for torpedo attacks on stragglers and some Ju 87 dive-bombers remained in Norway, along with a few long-range reconnaissance aircraft to observe for the surface and U-boat forces.[12]

Casualties

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Roskill in 1962 and Woodman in 2004 wrote that the Germans managed to sink thirteen merchant ships for a loss of four U-boats and 44 aircraft, 38 torpedo-bombers and six long-range bombers and reconnaissance aircraft.[13] Michael Howard, in 1972, recorded that the Allies lost 38 aircraft from 309, 126 tanks from 448 and 85 of the 106 lorries carried in the convoy. Convoy PQ 19 was assembled at Loch Ewe but not dispatched, a net loss to the Allied war effort.[14]

Allied order of battle

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Convoy, Loch Ewe to Archangel

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Loch Ewe to Archangel[15]
Name Year Flag GRT Notes
SS Africander 1921   Panama 5,441 Sunk in air attack
MV Atheltemplar 1930   United Kingdom 8,992 Damaged by U-457 Sunk by U-408, 16 casualties
SS Beauregard   United States 5,976 Engine trouble, returned Loch Ewe[16]
RFA Black Ranger 1941   Royal Navy 3,417 Fleet oiler
SS Campfire 1919   United States 5,671
SS Charles R. McCormick 1920   United States 6,027
SS Copeland 1923   United Kingdom 1,526 Rescue ship
SS Dan-y-Bryn 1940   United Kingdom 5,117 Vice-Convoy Commodore
SS Empire Baffin 1941   United Kingdom 6,978
SS Empire Beaumont 1942   United Kingdom 7,044 Sunk in air attack
SS Empire Morn 1941   United Kingdom 7,092 CAM ship
SS Empire Snow 1941   United Kingdom 6,327
SS Empire Stevenson 1941   United Kingdom 6,209 Sunk in air attack
SS Empire Tristram 1942   United Kingdom 7,167
SS Esek Hopkins 1942   United States 7,191
SS Goolistan 1929   United Kingdom 5,851
RFA Gray Ranger 1941   Royal Navy 3,313 Fleet oiler
SS Hollywood 1920   United States 5,498
SS John Penn 1942   United States 7,177 Sunk in air attack
SS Kentucky 1921   United States 5,446 Sunk in air attack
SS Lafayette 1919   United States 5,887
SS Macbeth 1920   Panama 4,941 Sunk in air attack
SS Mary Luckenbach 1919   United States 5,049 Sunk in air attack
SS Meanticut 1921   United States 6,061
SS Nathanael Greene 1942   United States 7,177
SS Ocean Faith 1942   United Kingdom 7,174
RFA Oligarch 1918   Royal Navy 6,894 Fleet oiler Joined from Spitzbergen group[15]
SS Oliver Ellsworth 1942   United States 7,191 Sunk by U-408 1 casualty
SS Oregonian 1917   United States 4,862 Sunk in air attack
SS Patrick Henry 1941   United States 7,191
SS Sahale 1919   United States 5,028
SS Schoharie 1919   United States 4,971
SS St. Olaf 1942   United States 7,191
SS Temple Arch 1940   United Kingdom 5,138 Flagship Convoy Commodore E. K. Boddam-Whetham
SS Virginia Dare 1942   United States 7,177
SS Wacosta 1920   United States 5,432 Sunk in air attack
SS White Clover 1920   Panama 5,462
SS William Moultrie 1942   United States 7,177
MMS 90 —   Royal Navy — 7–21 September 1942, MMS-class minesweeper rescue ship[17]
MMS 203 —   Royal Navy — 7–21 September 1942, MMS-class minesweeper rescue ship[17]
MMS 212 —   Royal Navy — 7–21 September 1942, MMS-class minesweeper rescue ship[17]

Convoy, Loch Ewe to Reykjavík

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Loch Ewe to Reykjavík[18]
Name Year Flag GRT Notes
SS Gateway City 1920   United States 5,432 Loch Ewe to Reykjavík only
SS Oremar 1919   United States 6,854
SS San Zotico 1919   United Kingdom 5,582

Convoy, Reykjavík to Arkhangelsk

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Reykjavík to Archangel[18]
Name Year Flag GRT Notes
SS Andre Marti 1918   Soviet Union 2,352 Joined from Reykjavík
SS Exford 1919   United States 4,969
SS Komiles 1932   Soviet Union 3,966
SS Petrovski 1921   Soviet Union 3,771
SS Richard Bassett 1942   United States 7,191 Joined from, returned to, Reykjavík (engine trouble)[19]
SS Stalingrad 1931   Soviet Union 3,559 Joined from Reykjavík, sunk by U-408, 21 casualties
SS Sukhona 1918   Soviet Union 3,124 Sunk in air attack
SS Tbilisi 1912   Soviet Union 7,169

Convoy formation

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Convoy formation, * = ship sunk[20]
column 1 column 2 column 3 column 4 column 5 column 6 column 7 column 8 column 9 column 10
11

Empire Baffin    

21

Komiles    

31

Empire Snow    

41

Empire Beaumont*    

51

Empire Tristram    

61

Temple Arch    

71

Ocean Faith    

81

Dan-Y-Bryn    

91

Empire Stevenson*    

101

Oregonian*    

12

Kentucky*    

22

Petrovski    

32

St Olaf    

42

Patrick Henry    

52

Sahale    

62

Lafayette    

72

Nathaniel Greene    

82

Virginia Dare    

92

Wacosta*    

102

Macbeth*    

13

Charles R McCormick    

23

White Clover    

33

Exford    

43

Esek Hopkins    

53

Empire Morn    

63

Campfire    

73

John Penn*    

83

William Moultrie    

93

Mary Luckenbach*    

103

Stalingrad*    

14

Andre Marti    

24

—    

34

Hollywood    

44

Meanticut    

54

Black Ranger    

64

Schoharie    

74

Goolistan    

84

—    

94

Africander*    

104

Sukhona*    

15

Copeland    

25

—    

35

—    

45

Atheltemplar*    

55

—    

65

Gray Ranger    

75

Tblisi    

85

—    

95

—    

105

Oliver Ellsworth*    

The Motor Minesweepers MMS 90, MMS 203 and MMS 212 were on transit to the Soviet Northern Fleet and were to act as rescue ships en route, receiving no position number.[15]

Escorts, Loch Ewe to Iceland

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Local escort group[15]
Name Class Navy Dates Notes
HMS Campbell Scott-class destroyer leader   Royal Navy 2–8 September 1942 Joined Heavy Cover Force
HNoMS Eskdale Type III Hunt-class destroyer   Royal Norwegian Navy 2–8 September 1942
HMS Farndale Type II Hunt-class destroyer   Royal Navy 2–8 September 19422
HMS Mackay Scott-class destroyer leader   Royal Navy 2–8 September 1942 Joined Heavy Cover Force
HMS Montrose Scott-class destroyer leader   Royal Navy 2–8 September 1942 Joined Heavy Cover Force
HMS Echo E-class destroyer   Royal Navy 2–8 September 1942
HMS Walpole W-class destroyer   Royal Navy 2–8 September 1942
HMT Arab A/S trawler   Royal Navy 2–8 September 1942 To Reykjavík as escort
HMT Duncton A/S trawler   Royal Navy 2–8 September 1942
HMT Hugh Walpole A/S trawler   Royal Navy 2–8 September 1942
HMT King Sol A/S trawler   Royal Navy 2–8 September 1942
HMT Paynter A/S trawler   Royal Navy 2–8 September 1942

Escorts, Iceland to Archangelsk

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Close escort[15]
Name Flag Class Dates Notes
HMS Malcolm   Royal Navy Scott-class destroyer 7–21 September 1942 Cdr A. B. Russell SOE
HMS Achates   Royal Navy A-class destroyer 7–21 September 1942
HMS Amazon   Royal Navy Admiralty modified W class destroyer 7–21 September 1942
HMS Alynbank   Royal Navy Auxiliary anti-aircraft cruiser 7–21 September 1942
HMS Ulster Queen   Royal Navy Auxiliary anti-aircraft cruiser 7–21 September 1942
HMS Bergamot   Royal Navy Flower-class corvette 7–21 September 1942
HMS Bryony   Royal Navy Flower-class corvette 7–21 September 1942
HMS Bluebell   Royal Navy Flower-class corvette 7–21 September 1942
HMS Camellia   Royal Navy Flower-class corvette 7–21 September 1942
HMT Cape Argona   Royal Navy A/S trawler 7–21 September 1942
HMT Cape Mariato   Royal Navy A/S trawler 7–21 September 1942
HMT Daneman   Royal Navy A/S trawler 7–21 September 1942
HMT St Kenan   Royal Navy A/S trawler 7–21 September 1942
HMS Harrier   Royal Navy Halcyon-class minesweeper 7–21 September 1942
HMS Gleaner   Royal Navy Halcyon-class minesweeper 7–21 September 1942
HMS Sharpshooter   Royal Navy Halcyon-class minesweeper 7–21 September 1942

Carrier group

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Avenger and escorts[15]
Name Navy Class Date Notes
HMS Avenger   Royal Navy Escort carrier 9–17 September 1942
HMS Wheatland   Royal Navy Hunt-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Wilton   Royal Navy Hunt-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942

Fighting Destroyer Escort

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Fighting Destroyer Escort[15]
Name Flag Class Dates Notes
HMS Scylla   Royal Navy Dido-class cruiser 9–17 September 1942 Flagship Rear Admiral Robert "Bullshit Bob" Burnett
HMS Onslow   Royal Navy O-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Onslaught   Royal Navy O-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Opportune   Royal Navy O-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Offa   Royal Navy O-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Ashanti   Royal Navy Tribal-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Eskimo   Royal Navy Tribal-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Somali   Royal Navy Tribal-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Tartar   Royal Navy Tribal-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Milne   Royal Navy M-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Marne   Royal Navy M-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Martin   Royal Navy M-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Meteor   Royal Navy M-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Faulknor   Royal Navy F-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Fury   Royal Navy F-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Impulsive   Royal Navy I-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942
HMS Intrepid   Royal Navy I-class destroyer 9–17 September 1942

Eastern Local Escort

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Eastern local escort from Archangelsk[15]
Name Flag Class Dates Notes
Gremyashchi   Soviet Navy Gnevny-class destroyer 17–22 September 1942
Kuibishev   Soviet Navy Orfey-class destroyer 17–22 September 1942
Sokrushitelny   Soviet Navy Gnevny-class destroyer 17–22 September 1942
Uritski   Soviet Navy Orfey-class destroyer 17–22 September 1942
HMS Halcyon   Royal Navy Halcyon-class minesweeper 17–22 September 1942
HMS Hazard   Royal Navy Halcyon-class minesweeper 17–22 September 1942
HMS Salamander   Royal Navy Halcyon-class minesweeper 17–22 September 1942
HMS Britomart   Royal Navy Halcyon-class minesweeper 17–22 September 1942

Cruiser Covering Force

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Cruiser Cover Force[15]
Name Flag Class Dates Notes
HMS London   Royal Navy County-class cruiser 14–22 September 1942
HMS Norfolk   Royal Navy County-class cruiser 14–22 September 1942 Flagship Vice-Admiral Stuart Bonham Carter
HMS Suffolk   Royal Navy County-class cruiser 14–22 September 1942
HMS Bulldog   Royal Navy B-class destroyer 14–22 September 1942
HMS Venomous   Royal Navy W-class destroyer 14–22 September 1942

Distant cover

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Distant cover (Home Fleet)[15]
Name Flag Class Dates Notes
HMS Anson   Royal Navy King George V-class battleship 11–14 September 1942 Flagship, Vice-Admiral Bruce Fraser
HMS Duke of York   Royal Navy King George V-class battleship 11–14 September 1942
HMS Jamaica   Royal Navy Fiji-class cruiser 11–14 September 1942
HMS Keppel   Royal Navy Thornycroft type destroyer leader 11–14 September 1942 Commander Jack Broome
HMS Montrose   Royal Navy Scott-class destroyer leader 11–14 September 1942 Joined from local escort group
HMS Campbell   Royal Navy Scott-class destroyer leader 11–14 September 1942 Joined from local escort group
HMS Mackay   Royal Navy Scott-class destroyer leader 11–14 September 1942 Joined from local escort group
HMS Bramham   Royal Navy Hunt-class destroyer 11–14 September 1942
HMS Broke   Royal Navy Thornycroft type destroyer leader 11–14 September 1942

Spitzbergen fuelling base

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Spitzbergen fuelling base[15][a]
Name Flag Class Dates Notes
RFA Blue Ranger   Royal Navy Oiler 10 September 1942
RFA Oligarch   Royal Navy Oiler 10 September 1942
HMS Oakley   Royal Navy Hunt-class destroyer 10 September 1942
HMS Cowdray   Royal Navy Hunt-class destroyer 10 September 1942
HMS Worcester   Royal Navy Modified W-class destroyer 10 September 1942
HMS Windsor   Royal Navy Modified W-class destroyer 10 September 1942

Operation Gearbox II

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Main article: Operation Gearbox II
Gearbox II Spitzbergen supply run[15][b]
Name Flag Class Dates Notes
HMS Cumberland   Royal Navy County-class cruiser 14 September 1942
HMS Sheffield   Royal Navy Town-class cruiser 14 September 1942
HMS Eclipse   Royal Navy E-class destroyer 14 September 1942

Submarine patrols

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Submarine patrols (September–October 1942)[22]
Name Flag Type Patrol Notes
HMS Shakespeare   Royal Navy S-class submarine 7–23 September Off Norwegian coast
HMS Unrivalled   Royal Navy U-class submarine 7 September – 1 October Off Norwegian coast
HMS Unique   Royal Navy U-class submarine 7 September – 1 October Off Norwegian coast
HMS Tribune   Royal Navy T-class submarine 2 September – 1 October Patrol force
HMS Tigris   Royal Navy T-class submarine 2 September – 1 October Patrol force
HMS Sturgeon   Royal Navy S-class submarine 2–6 September Patrol force, returned port
HMS Unshaken   Royal Navy U-class submarine 2 September – 1 October Patrol force
HNoMS Uredd   Royal Norwegian Navy U-class submarine 2 September – 1 October Patrol force
Rubis   Free French Naval Forces Saphir-class submarine Minelayer
K-1   Soviet Navy Soviet K-class submarine Patrol
K-2   Soviet Navy Soviet K-class submarine Patrol
K-21   Soviet Navy Soviet K-class submarine Patrol
Shch-422   Soviet Navy Shchuka-class submarine Patrol
M-174   Soviet Navy Soviet M-class submarine Patrol

RAF

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Main article: Operation Orator
Search and Strike Force based in Russia[23]
Sqn Type No. Role Notes
144 Squadron RAF Hampden 16 torpedo-bomber 6 lost in transit 4–5 September 1942
455 Squadron RAAF Hampden 16 torpedo-bomber 3 lost in transit 4–5 September 1942
210 Squadron RAF Catalina 9 Reconnaissance/ASW No losses
1 PRU Spitfire PR Mk IV(D) 3 Reconnaissance 1 written off 9 September, 1 shot down 27 September

Axis order of battle

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Luftwaffe

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Luftflotte 5[5][24]
Unit Type Role Notes
I./Kampfgeschwader 26 Heinkel He 111 Torpedo-bomber
III./Kampfgeschwader 26 Heinkel He 111 Torpedo-bomber
Kampfgeschwader 30 Junkers Ju 88 Bomber
1./Kampfgeschwader 40 Focke-Wulf Fw 200 Condor Long-range reconnaissance
Küstenfliegergruppe 406 Blohm & Voss BV 138 Coastal reconnaissance Diverted to weather reconnaissance[25]
Küstenfliegergruppe 906 Blohm & Voss BV 138 Coastal reconnaissance Diverted to weather reconnaissance[25]

U-boats

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Gruppe Trägertod[26]
Name Flag Commander Class Notes
U-88   Kriegsmarine Heino Bohmann Type VIIC submarine Sunk, Faulknor[27]
U-255   Kriegsmarine Reinhard Reche Type VIIC submarine
U-377   Kriegsmarine Otto Köhler Type VIIC submarine
U-378   Kriegsmarine Alfred Hoschatt Type VIIC submarine
U-403   Kriegsmarine Heinz-Ehlert Clausen Type VIIC submarine
U-405   Kriegsmarine Rolf-Heinrich Hopmann Type VIIC submarine
U-408   Kriegsmarine Reinhard von Hymmen Type VIIC submarine Sank Stalingrad[28]
U-435   Kriegsmarine Siegfried Strelow Type VIIC submarine
U-457   Kriegsmarine Karl Brandenburg Type VIIC submarine Damaged Atheltemplar, sunk Impulsive[28][29]
U-589   Kriegsmarine Hans-Joachim Horrer Type VIIC submarine Sank Oliver Ellsworth, sunk Onslow[28][30]
U-592   Kriegsmarine Carl Borm Type VIIC submarine
U-703   Kriegsmarine Heinz Bielfeld Type VIIC submarine

Surface ships

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Sortie, 9 September 1942[31]
Name Flag Type Notes
Admiral Scheer   Kriegsmarine Deutschland-class cruiser Flagship Vice Admiral Kummetz
Admiral Hipper   Kriegsmarine Admiral Hipper-class cruiser
Köln   Kriegsmarine Königsberg-class cruiser
Z4 Richard Beitzen   Kriegsmarine Type 1934 destroyer
Z23   Kriegsmarine Type 1936A destroyer
Z27   Kriegsmarine Type 1936A destroyer Flag Kapitän zur See Gottfried Pönitz [de]
Z29   Kriegsmarine Type 1936A destroyer
Z30   Kriegsmarine Type 1936A destroyer

Notes

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  1. ^ Spelled as it was originally named.[21]
  2. ^ Spelled as it was originally named.[21]

Footnotes

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  1. ^ Hinsley 1994, pp. 141, 145–146.
  2. ^ Kahn 1973, pp. 238–241; Budiansky 2000, pp. 250, 289.
  3. ^ Woodman 2004, pp. 264–272.
  4. ^ Roskill 1962, pp. 282–283.
  5. ^ a b Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, p. 196.
  6. ^ Woodman 2004, pp. 273–282.
  7. ^ Roskill 1962, p. 287.
  8. ^ Rahn 2001, p. 456.
  9. ^ a b Woodman 2004, p. 283.
  10. ^ Hinsley 1994, p. 156.
  11. ^ Richards & Saunders 1975, p. 85.
  12. ^ PRO 2001, p. 115.
  13. ^ Woodman 2004, p. 280; Roskill 1962, p. 287.
  14. ^ Howard 1972, p. 42.
  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Ruegg & Hague 1993, p. 43.
  16. ^ Smith 1975, p. 32.
  17. ^ a b c Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, p. 193.
  18. ^ a b Ruegg & Hague 1993, p. 42.
  19. ^ Smith 1975, p. 37.
  20. ^ Ruegg & Hague 1993, p. 43; Hague 2000, pp. 190–191.
  21. ^ a b Smith 1975, p. 213.
  22. ^ Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, pp. 193–194.
  23. ^ Schofield & Nesbit 1987, p. 195; Richards & Saunders 1975, pp. 81–82.
  24. ^ Claasen 2001, pp. 193, 200.
  25. ^ a b Kington & Selinger 2006, p. 181.
  26. ^ Blair 2000, pp. 20–21, 250, 268.
  27. ^ Smith 1975, p. 50.
  28. ^ a b c Blair 2000, p. 20.
  29. ^ Smith 1975, pp. 150–151.
  30. ^ Smith 1975, pp. 132–134.
  31. ^ Rohwer & Hümmelchen 2005, p. 195.

References

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  • Blair, Clay (2000) [1998]. Hitler's U-Boat War: The Hunted 1942–1945. Vol. II (UK pbk. ed.). Cassell. ISBN 0-304-35261-6.
  • Boog, H.; Rahn, W.; Stumpf, R.; Wegner, B. (2001) [1990]. Der globale Krieg: Die Ausweitung zum Weltkrieg und der Wechsel zur Initiative 1941 bis 1943 [Widening of the Conflict into a World War and the Shift of the Initiative 1941–1943]. Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg (Germany and the Second World War). Vol. VI. Translated by Osers, Ewald; Brownjohn, John; Crampton, Patricia; Willmot, Louise (eng. trans. Cambridge University Press, London ed.). Stuttgart: Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt for the Militärgeschichtlichen Forschungsamt. ISBN 0-19-822888-0.
    • Rahn, W. "PART III The War at Sea in the Atlantic and in the Arctic Ocean IV. Operations on the Northern Flank of Europe". In Boog et al. (2001).
  • Budiansky, S. (2000). Battle of Wits: The Complete Story of Codebreaking in World War II. New York: The Free Press (Simon & Schuster). ISBN 0-684-85932-7 – via Archive Foundation.
  • Claasen, A. R. A. (2001). Hitler's Northern War: The Luftwaffe's Ill-fated Campaign, 1940–1945. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1050-2.
  • Hague, Arnold (2000). The Allied Convoy System 1939–1945. London: Chatham. ISBN 978-1-55125-033-5.
  • Hinsley, F. H. (1994) [1993]. British Intelligence in the Second World War: Its Influence on Strategy and Operations. History of the Second World War (2nd rev. abr. ed.). London: HMSO. ISBN 978-0-11-630961-7.
  • Howard, M. (1972). Grand Strategy: August 1942 – September 1943. History of the Second World War United Kingdom Military Series. Vol. IV. London: HMSO. ISBN 978-0-11-630075-1.
  • Kahn, D. (1973) [1967]. The Codebreakers: The Story of Secret Writing (10th abr. Signet, Chicago ed.). New York: Macmillan. LCCN 63-16109. OCLC 78083316.
  • Kington, J. A.; Selinger, F. (2006). Wekusta: Luftwaffe Meteorological Reconnaissance Units & Operations 1938–1945. Ottringham: Flight Recorder Publications. ISBN 978-0-9545605-8-4.
  • Richards, Denis; Saunders, H. St G. (1975) [1954]. Royal Air Force 1939–1945: The Fight Avails. History of the Second World War, Military Series. Vol. II (pbk. ed.). London: HMSO. ISBN 978-0-11-771593-6 – via Hyperwar.
  • Rohwer, Jürgen; Hümmelchen, Gerhard (2005) [1972]. Chronology of the War at Sea, 1939–1945: The Naval History of World War Two (3rd rev. ed.). London: Chatham Publishing. ISBN 1-86176-257-7.
  • Roskill, S. W. (1962) [1956]. The Period of Balance. History of the Second World War: The War at Sea 1939–1945. Vol. II (3rd impr. ed.). London: HMSO. OCLC 174453986 – via Hyperwar.
  • Ruegg, R.; Hague, A. (1993) [1992]. Convoys to Russia: Allied Convoys and Naval Surface Operations in Arctic Waters 1941–1945 (2nd rev. enl. ed.). Kendal: World Ship Society. ISBN 0-905617-66-5.
  • Schofield, Ernest; Nesbit, Roy Conyers (1987). Arctic Airmen: The RAF in Spitsbergen and North Russia 1942. London: W. Kimber. ISBN 978-0-7183-0660-1.
  • Smith, Peter (1975). Convoy PQ18: Arctic Victory. London: William Kimber. ISBN 978-0-7183-0074-6.
  • The Rise and Fall of the German Air Force (repr. Public Record Office War Histories ed.). Richmond, Surrey: Air Ministry. 2001 [1948]. ISBN 978-1-903365-30-4. Air 41/10.
  • Woodman, Richard (2004) [1994]. Arctic Convoys 1941–1945. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-5752-1.

Further reading

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  • Llewellyn-Jones, Malcolm, ed. (2014) [2007]. The Royal Navy and the Arctic Convoys: A Naval Staff History. Naval Staff Histories. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-86177-9.
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