Karu language

Not to be confused with Baniwa of Guainia.

Karu, one of several languages called Baniwa (Baniva), or in older sources Itayaine (Iyaine), is an Arawakan language spoken in Guainía, Colombia, Venezuela, and Amazonas, Brazil. It forms a subgroup with the Tariana, Piapoco, Resígaro and Guarequena languages. There are 10,000 speakers.

Karu
Baniwa of Içana
Tapuya
Native to	Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil
Ethnicity	Baniwa people
Native speakers	12,000 (2001–2007)
Language family	Arawakan Northern Upper Amazon Eastern Nawiki Karu
Dialects	Carútana-Baniwa Hohôdene (Katapolitana) Siusy-Tapuya (Seuci) Ipeka-Tapuia Curripaco (Wakuénai) Unhun (Katapolitana, Enhen) Waliperi Mapanai Moriwene
Official status
Official language in	Brazil (São Gabriel da Cachoeira)
Language codes
ISO 639-3	Either: bwi – Baniwa kpc – Curripako
Glottolog	bani1259  Baniwa-Curripaco
ELP	Baniwa Curripaco

Varieties

Aikhenvald (1999) considers the three main varieties to be dialects; Kaufman (1994) considers them to be distinct languages, in a group he calls "Karu". They are:

• Baniwa of Içana (Baniua do Içana)
• Curripaco (Kurripako, Ipeka-Tapuia-Curripako)
• Katapolítani-Moriwene-Mapanai (Catapolitani, Kadaupuritana)

Various (sub)dialects of all three are called tapuya, a Brazilian Portuguese and Nheengatu word for non-Tupi/non-Guarani Indigenous peoples of Brazil (from a Tupi word meaning "enemy, barbarian"). All are spoken by the Baniwa people. Ruhlen lists all as "Izaneni"; Greenberg's Adzánani (= Izaneni) presumably belongs here.

Ramirez (2020) gives the following classification for three separate dialect chains:

• Southern (Karotana): lower Içana River, also a group living in Victorino on the Guainia River (Colombia-Venezuela border)
  • Mapatsi-Dákeenai (Yurupari-Tapuya)
  • Wadzoli-Dákeenai (Urubu-Tapuya)
  • Dzawi-Mínanai (Yauareté-Tapuya)
  • Adaro-Mínanai (Arara-Tapuya)
• Central (Baniwa): middle Içana River (from Assunção Mission to Siuci-Cachoeira) and its tributaries (Aiari River and lower Cuiari River); also around Tunuí
  • Hohódeeni
  • Walipere-Dákeenai (Siucí-Tapuya)
  • Máolieni (Cáuatapuya)
  • Mápanai (Ira-Tapuya)
  • Awádzoronai
  • Molíweni (Sucuriyú-Tapuya)
  • Kadáopoliri
  • etc.
• Northern (called "Koripako" in Brazil): upper Içana River (from Matapi upwards), Guainia River, headwaters of the Cuiari River
  • Ayáneeni (Tatú-Tapuya)
  • Payoálieni (Pacútapuya)
  • Komada-Mínanai (Ipéca-Tapuya)
  • Kapitti-Mínanai (Coatí-Tapuya)
  • etc.

Phonology

Vowels

	Front	Central	Back
High	i iː
Mid	e eː		o oː
Low		a aː

• When occurring as short, the vowels /i e a o/ are realized as [ɪ ɛ ə ʊ]. They are also realized as both short and long nasals /ĩ ẽ ɐ̃ õ/, [ɪ̃ ɛ̃ ə̃ ʊ̃].

Consonants

		Bilabial	Dental	Alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal	voiced	m		n		ɲ	(ŋ)
	voiceless	m̥		n̥		ɲ̊
Plosive	plain	p	t̪	t			k
	aspirated	pʰ	t̪ʰ	tʰ			kʰ
	voiced	b		d
Affricate	plain			ts		tʃ
	aspirated			tsʰ		tʃʰ
	voiced			dz		dʒ
Fricative	plain	ɸ		ʃ	ʂ	ç		h
	voiced	β			ʐ
Flap	voiced			ɺ
	voiceless			ɺ̥
Approximant		w ~ ʍ				j ~ j̊

• Voiced approximant sounds can fluctuate to voiceless sounds among dialects.
• /ŋ/ only occurs when preceding a velar consonant.
• /ɺ̥, ɺ/ is in free variation with [ɾ̥, ɾ].

Grammar

Alignment System

Baniwa has active–stative alignment. This means that the subject of an intransitive clause is sometimes marked in the same way as the agent of a transitive clause, and sometimes marked in the same way as the patient of a transitive clause. In Baniwa alignment is realized through verbal agreement, namely prefixes and enclitics.

Prefixes are used to mark:

• Active intransitive subjects (S_a)
• Agents of transitive clauses (A)
• Possessors
• Arguments of adpositions

Enclitics are used to mark:

• Stative intransitive subjects (S_o)
• Patients of transitive clauses (O)

		Prefixes		Enclitics
		singular	plural	singular	plural
1st person		nu-	wa-	-hnua	-hwa
2nd person		pi-	i-	-phia	-ihia
3rd person	Nonfeminine	ri-	na-	-ni/ -hria	-hna
	Feminine	ʒu-
Impersonal		pa-		-pha

The differences between active and stative intransitive clauses can be illustrated below:

• Transitive: ri-kapa-ni 'He sees him/it'
• Active Intransitive: ri-emhani 'He walks'
• Stative Intransitive: hape-ka-ni 'He is cold'

Noun Classification System

Baniwa has an interesting system of noun classification that combines a gender system with a noun classifier system. Baniwa has two genders: feminine and nonfeminine. Feminine gender agreement is used to refer to female referents, whilst nonfeminine gender agreement is used for all other referents. The two genders are only distinguished in third person singular. Aihkenvald (2007) considers the bipartite gender system to be inherited from Proto-Arawak.

In addition to gender, Baniwa also has 46 classifiers. Classifiers are used in three main contexts:

• As a derivational suffix on nouns, e.g.

tʃipaɾa-api

metal.object-CL.hollow

tʃipaɾa-api

metal.object-CL.hollow

'pan'

• With numerals, e.g.

apa-api

one-CL.hollow

mawapi

blowgun+CL.long.thin

apa-api mawapi

one-CL.hollow blowgun+CL.long.thin

'one blow gun'

• With adjectives, e.g.

tʃipaɾa-api

metal.object-CL.hollow

maka-api

big-CL.hollow

tʃipaɾa-api maka-api

metal.object-CL.hollow big-CL.hollow

'big pan'

Aihkenvald (2007) divides Baniwa classifiers into four different classes. One set of classifiers is used for humans, animate beings and body parts. Another set of classifiers specify the shape, consistency, quantification or specificity of the noun. Two more classes can be distinguished. One is only used with numerals and the other is only used with adjectives.

Classifiers for Humans and animate beings:

Classifier	Usage	Example
-ita	for animate males and body parts	apa-ita pedaɾia 'one old man'
-hipa	for human males only	aphepa nawiki 'one man'
-ma	for female referents	apa-ma inaʒu 'one woman'

Classifiers according to shape, consistency, quantification and specificity:

Classifier	Usage	Example
-da	round objects, natural phenomena and generic classifier	hipada 'stone'
-apa	flying animate, semioval objects	kepiʒeni 'bird'
-kwa	flat, round, extended objects	kaida 'beach'
-kha	curvilinear objects	a:pi 'snake'
-na	vertical, standing objects	haiku 'tree'
-Ø	hollow, small objects	a:ta 'cup'
-maka	stretchable, extended objects	tsaia 'skirt'
-ahna	liquids	u:ni 'water'
-ima	sides	apema nu-kapi makemaɾi 'one big side of my hand'
-pa	boxes, parcels	apa-'pa itsa maka-paɾi one big box of fishing hooks'
-wana	thin slice	apa-wana kuphe maka-wane 'a big thin slice of fish'
-wata	bundle for carrying	apa-wata paɾana maka-wate 'a big bundle of bananas'
-Ø	canoes	i:ta 'canoe'
-pawa	rivers	u:ni 'river'
-ʃa	excrement	iʃa 'excrement'
-ya	skins	dzawiya 'jaguar skin'

Negation

There are two main strategies for negation in the Kurripako-Baniwa varieties:

• Independent negative markers
• The privative derivational prefix ma-

Different varieties have different negative markers. This is so prominent that speakers identify Kurripako dialects according to the words for 'yes' and 'no'.

Dialect	Spoken in	Yes	No
Aha-Khuri	Colombia, Venezuela & Brazil	Aha	Khuri
Ehe-Khenim	Venezuela	Ehe	Khenim
Oho-Karo	Colombia & Brazil	Oho	Karo
Oho-Ñame	Colombia & Brazil	Oho	Ñame

The independent negative markers come before the verb. They are used as clausal negators in declarative and interrogative sentences. They are also used to link clauses.

The privative suffix is attached to nouns to derive a verb which means 'lacking' the noun from which it was derived. The opposite of the privative prefix is the attributive prefix ka-. This derives a verb which means 'having' the noun from which it was derived. The difference can be illustrated below:

• Noun: iipe 'meat'
• Privative: ma-iipe > meepe 'be thin' (lit. lack meat)
• Attributive: ka-iipe > keepe 'be fat' (lit. have meat)

The prefix is used in combination with the restrictive suffix -tsa to form negative imperatives, e.g. ma-ihnia-tsa 'don't eat!'. A privative prefix is also reconstructed in Proto-Arawak privative as *ma-.

Word Order

Granadillo (2014) considers Kurripako a VOS language.

Vocabulary

Verbs

Baniwa	English
Kapa	To See
Za	To Drink
Hima	To Hear
Cami	To Die
Nu	To Come

Baniwa	English
atxinari	man
inarru	woman
yene-pati	boy
inarru	girl
yém-beti	child
pa-dzo	father
noo-dua	mother
noenipe	son
noo-ido	daughter
nuda-querri	grandchild
nuda-queda	grand-daughter
nutxi-marré	genre
noo-ito	daughter-in-law
noo-querri	uncle
nocuiro	aunt
ni-ri	nephew
nôpérrirri	niece
no-ri	brother-in-law
no-i-dua	sister-in-law
noo-perri	grandfather
indaque-dua	grandmother
ne-wi-da	head
no-txi	eyes
notxi-macaia	right eye
noca-cuda	left eye
notxi-coré	hair
noécoá	forehead
noéni	ears
itaco	nose
nunuma	mouth
noénéne	tongue
noé-txa	teeth
nunumaia	lips
nuca-cuià	face
nué-râ	chin
nué-galico	neck
nuqui-apà	shoulders
no-cudà	chest
numiruapi	ribs
nucaré	heart
no-eni	lung
no-au-à	stomach
nona-pa	right or left arm
no-capi	right or left hand
no-motxi	navel
no-capuira	fingers
no-cotxi	leg
no-ipà	foot
no-ipé-uidà	toes
no-coro-da	to heel
nosso-tà	nail
e-eno	sky
e-uitxi	stars
amôri	sun
ke-rri	moon
e-eno	thunderbolt
e-quapi	day
de-pi	night
i-zzapà	hill, mountain
u-uni	river
cá-retá	lake
i-zzá	rain
cuára	wind
inhau-opo	stream
u-ni	water
qué-véré	island
ri-ipá	waterfall
kenihé	farm
pan-ete	house
ni-dá	canoe
ti-iná	ranch
i-ipaí	yard
ti-izzé	fire, firewood
tizé-ven	ember
ye-tá	network
u-paí	floor
ai-co	tree
cuia	gourd
no-inhau-adá	food
cápa	do
má-tari	axe
to-rro	pan
to-ro-dá	clay pot
guaraia	basket
dôpetzi	sieve
paraná	banana
cae-ini	manioc
ma-tsoca	flour
noo-cacá, cará-atxi	sweet potato
a-pi	pepper
mapa	sugar cane
matxucá	chicken
rie-fé	egg
ci-no	dog
a-pidzá	pig
tzzaui	ounce
né-irri	deer
ti-itxi	agouti
aridari	armadillo
e-má	tapir
cal-xerri	alligator
cu-pé	fish
acorro	animal
hamé	ant
maroio	beads
yukira	salt
palito	matches
txurra	trousers
ma-uidá	comb
hon-hon	yes
curi-papa	no
no-i-no	single
no-i-nerri	married
no-ine-dzango	widower
ma-txi-áde	good
dopo	ugly
matxidé	bad
a-perri	cold
a-mûde	hot, warm
tacua	fever
cá-ide	ache
pauéridza	one
dzamâuari	two
madariaui	three
uadáca	four

Further reading

• Gonçalves, Artur Garcia. 2018. Para uma dialetologia baniwa-koripako do rio Içana. M.A. dissertation, Universidade de Brasília.

Bibliography

de Souza, Erick Marcelo Lima (2012). Estudo Fonológico da Língua Baniwa-Kuripako [Phonological Analysis of the Baniwa-Kuripako language] (PDF) (Master's thesis) (in Brazilian Portuguese). University of Campinas. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-03-11. Retrieved 2017-06-24.

External links

• Baniva del Guainia Language
• Baniwa of the Aiary and Içana Collection of Robin M. Wright at the Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America.
• Curripaco Collection of Jonathan Hill at the Archive of the Indigenous Languages of Latin America.
• Portal Japiim (online dictionary)