Adamawa Fulfulde is a variety of the Fula language. It is spoken mainly in Cameroon but also by significant communities residing in Nigeria, Chad, and Sudan by Fulani pastoralists across the Sahel. It is also known as Eastern Fulfulde and by various other names including Boulbe, Dzemay, Fula, Fulfulde, Mbororo, Palata, Peul etc.[2]

Adamawa Fulfulde
Fulfulde / Adamaawa Fulfulde
ڢُلْڢُلْدٜ / عَدَمَاوَ ڢُلْڢُلْدٜ
Native toCameroon, Chad, Nigeria[1]
RegionSahel
EthnicityFula
SpeakersL1: 3.0 million (2019)[1]
L2: 2.7 million (2019)[1]
Dialects
  • Bilkiri
  • Garoua
  • Maroua
  • Ngaondéré
  • Mbororoore
Arabic (Ajami)
Latin
Language codes
ISO 639-3fub
Glottologadam1253

Adamawa Fulfulde was originally brought to Cameroon in the early parts of the 19th century during a religious war (Jihad) that was launched by Usman dan Fodio from Northern Nigeria.[3] It was originally used as a trade language, however since the arrival of Christian missionaries in the latter half of the 19th century in 1885 to the area in what is now Northern Cameroon and Northern Nigeria, Adamawa Fulfulde became a language widely used in churches and is now used as a Language Of Wider Communication (LWC) in 3 regions of Cameroon.[4][5]

It is an Atlantic language that belongs to the Niger–Congo language family. The speakers of the language are the Fulani people. The language itself is divided into a number of sub-dialects: Maroua, Garoua, Ngaondéré, Kambariire, Mbororoore, and Bilkire.[6]

In Sudan, the language is spoken mainly in Blue Nile, Gedaref, and Sennar states with some communities of speakers also found in North Kordofan and South Kordofan states. In South Sudan, it is spoken in Western Bahr el Ghazal state by Ambororo cattle herders. In Chad, it is spoken in Lac Léré Department in the Mayo-Kebbi Ouest Region. In Nigeria, it is spoken in Adamawa and Taraba states. While in Cameroon the language is widespread across the Far North and Northern regions of the country.[6]

Adamawa Fulfulde has the Morphological imperative in which words are divided into second singular and second plural,[7] and like many of the languages of the Fula dialect continuum and Niger–Congo language family, Adamawa Fulfulde has a system of noun classes and marks plurals by mutating the initial consonant of a word.[8] The word order for Adamawa Fulfulde is SOV (subject–object–verb).[9]

Orthography

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Adamawa Fulfulde is mostly written in a modified Arabic script, in the tradition of Ajami script, that it shares with many other languages such as Hausa language, and many other languages in Sub-Sahara Africa. Writing Fulfulde with Arabic script has a long tradition and old manuscripts are found in all of West Africa. While traditionally, the Arabic alphabet was used in its unmodified original 28-character state, and thus no distinction was made between similar sounds, such as [b]/[mb]/[ɓ], [d]/[nd], or [p]/[f], today, despite a lack of governmental endorsement in many instances, these letters and writing conventions have been standardized and agreed upon.[10][11]

Latin alphabet is also used for writing of Adamawa. The usage of Latin is a lot more recent, only coming to existence with the arrival of European Christian. Still, in Cameroon, Arabic alphabet remains more popular for writing of Adamawa Fulfulde than Latin.

Adamawa Fulfulde Ajami alphabet

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The Adamawa Fulfulde Ajami alphabet is the result of many decades of efforts to standardize, starting from the 1960s. By the 1990s, the orthography was well established. In 1998, at the JCMWA/MICCAO conference in Ngaoundéré, Cameroon, over 100 representatives from 14 West African countries agreed that this orthography would be a good standard for writing the Fulfulde language with Arabic script.[11]

The alphabet consists of 33 basic letters, 28 plus hamaza from Arabic, and 4 are new letters created for use in Fulfulde. 10 of the Arabic letters are only used for writing Arabic loanwords, and have no use for writing indigenous Fulfulde words.

Primary Characters of Adamawa Fulfulde Ajami[11]
Name Forms Sound represented Latin equivalent Unicode Notes
Isolated Final Medial Initial
aliifi
اَلِيڢِ
ا ـا [] ([]) A a
( - )
U+0627 Main function of this letter is lengthening of the vowel [a], in which case, the preceding letter needs to carry a diacritic '◌َا‎'. Unlike the conventions in various other languages using Arabic alphabet, this letter is not used at the beginning of words as a vowel diacritic carrier. Instead, the letter ayni 'عـ ع‎' is used. This letter does come in the beginning of words as a vowel diacritic carrier for common Arabic loanwords.
bee
بٜىٰ
ب ـب ـبـ بـ [b] B b U+0628
ɓee moɗu
ࢡٜىٰ مٛطُ
ـࢡ ـࢡـ ࢡـ [ɓ] Ɓ ɓ U+08A1 Character unique to Fulfulde, not found in Arabic.
tee
تىٰ
ت ـت ـتـ تـ [t] T t U+062A
camamlu
شَمَمْلُ
ث ـث ـثـ ثـ [s] ([θ]) S s U+062B Only used in Arabic loanwords. Pronounced as [θ] in Arabic, but as [s] in Fulfulde.
jiimi
جِيمِ
ج ـج ـجـ جـ [d͡ʒ] J j U+062C
haa baaluul
حَا بَالُولْ
ح ـح ـحـ حـ [h] H h U+062D This letter is pronounced as [h] in Fulfulde, and is used for representing the sound [h] (except in Arabic loanwords). This is contrary to Arabic itself where this letter is pronounced as [ħ] (voiceless pharyngeal fricative), and the letter haa peetel 'هـ ه‎' is pronounced as [h]. The latter is only used in Arabic loanwords in Fulfulde.
haa toɓɓuŋgol
خَا تٛࢡُّنغْغٛلْ
خ ـخ ـخـ خـ [h] ([x]) H h
(Kh kh)
U+062E Only used in Arabic loanwords. Pronounced as [x] in Arabic, but as [h] or [x] in Fulfulde.
deeli
دٜىٰلِ
د ـد - - [d] D d U+062F
jaali
ذَالِ
ذ ـذ - - [d͡ʒ] ([z]/[ð]) J j U+0630 Only used in Arabic loanwords. Pronounced as [ð] in Arabic, but as [d͡ʒ] in Fulfulde, as [z] in Maroua.
arre
عَرّٜ
ر ـر - - [ɾ]/[r] R r U+0631 The letter arre 'ر‎' is pronounced as "flapped" [ɾ] on its own, but when geminated (with shaddah diacritic), as a "thrill" [r]".
jayra
زَيْرَ
ز ـز - - [d͡ʒ] ([z]) J j U+0632 Only used in Arabic loanwords. Pronounced as [z] in Arabic, but as [d͡ʒ] in Fulfulde, as [z] in Maroua.
siini
سِينِ
س ـس ـسـ سـ [s] S s U+0633
ciini
شِينِ
ش ـش ـشـ شـ [t͡ʃ]~[ʃ] C c U+0634 This letter has a variation of pronunciations in different local dialects.
saadi
صَادِ
ص ـص ـصـ صـ [s] ([]) S s U+0635 Only used in Arabic loanwords. Pronounced as [sˤ] in Arabic, but as [s] in Fulfulde.
daadi
ضَادِ
ض ـض ـضـ ضـ [d] ([]) D d U+0636 Only used in Arabic loanwords. Pronounced as [dˤ] in Arabic, but as [d] in Fulfulde.
ɗaadi
طَادِ
ط ـط ـطـ طـ [ɗ] Ɗ ɗ U+0637
jaadi
ظَادِ
ظ ـظ ـظـ ظـ [d͡ʒ] ([z]) J j U+0638 Only used in Arabic loanwords. Pronounced as [z] in Arabic, but as [d͡ʒ] in Fulfulde, as [z] in Maroua.
ayni
عَيْنِ
ع ـع ـعـ عـ []/[ʔ] U+0639 This consonant is used at the beginning of words that start with vowels, to be a carrier of the vowel diacritic. It is also used in middle and end of words when there are vowel sequences. This is the local indigenous innovation in the Adamawa dialectical area.
aŋgani
عَنغْغَنِ
غ ـغ ـغـ غـ [g] G g U+063A
fee
ڢٜىٰ
ڢ ـڢ ـڢـ ڢـ [f] F f U+063A
pee
ݠٜىٰ
ݠ ـݠ ݠـ ݠـ [p] P p U+0760 Character unique to Fulfulde, not found in Arabic.
gaafu
قَاڢُ
ق ـق ـقـ قـ [k]~[g] ([q]) K k
G g
U+0642 Only used in Arabic loanwords. Pronounced as [q] in Arabic, but as [k~g] in Fulfulde.
keefu
کٜىٰڢُ
ک ـک ـکـ کـ [k] K k U+06A9
laamu
لَامُ
ل ـل ـلـ لـ [l] L l U+0644
miimi
مِيمِ
م ـم ـمـ مـ [m]/[ᵐ◌] M m U+0645 This letter serves two functions. Either as a consonant [m], in which case it will always carry a diacritic, including zero-vowel/sukun 'مْـ مْ‎ diacritic. Or it is a part of a digraph that indicates a prenasalized consonant, in which case it will not carry any diacritic.
nuunu
نُونُ
ن ـن ـنـ نـ [n]/[ⁿ◌] N n U+0646 This letter serves two functions. Either as a consonant [n], in which case it will always carry a diacritic, including zero-vowel/sukun 'نْـ نْ‎ diacritic. Or it is a part of a digraph that indicates a prenasalized consonant, in which case it will not carry any diacritic.
haa peetel
هَا ݠٜىٰتٜلْ
ه ـه ـهـ هـ [h] H h U+0647 Only used in Arabic loanwords. For all other instances, the letter haa baaluul 'ح‎' is used.
waawu
وَاوُ
و ـو - - [w]/[]/[] W w
Oo oo
Uu uu
U+0648 This letter serves two functions, either as a consonant [w], or it lengthens vowels [o] or [u]. When serving as a consonant, it always carries a diacritic, including zero-vowel/sukun 'وْ‎' diacritic. When lengthening a vowel, it does not. When lengthening a vowel, the preceding letter must carry either an [o] diacritic '◌ٛو‎' or an [u] diacritic '◌ُو‎'.
yah
يَحْ
ي ـي ـيـ يـ [j]/[] Y y
Ii ii
U+064A This letter serves two functions, either as a consonant [j], or it lengthens vowel [i]. When serving as a consonant, it always carries a diacritic, including zero-vowel/sukun 'يْ‎' diacritic. When lengthening a vowel, it does not. When lengthening a vowel, the preceding letter must carry an [i] diacritic '◌ِيـ ◌ِي‎'.
- ىٰ ـىٰ ـىٰـ ىٰـ [] Ee ee U+0649
plus
U+0670
Letter used for lengthening of vowel [e]. The preceding letter must carry an [e] diacritic '◌ٜىٰـ ◌ٜىٰ‎'.
yah moɗi
ࢨَحْ مٛطِ
ـࢨ ـࢨـ ࢨـ [] Ƴ ƴ U+08A8 Character unique to Fulfulde, not found in Arabic.
nya
ࢩَ
ـࢩ ـࢩـ ࢩـ [ɲ] Ny ny U+08A9 Character unique to Fulfulde, not found in Arabic.
hamaja
هَمَزَ
ء - - - [ʔ] U+0621 Only used in Arabic loanwords to indicate a glottal pause or a vowel sequence. In native Fula words, the letter ayni 'عـ ع‎' is used.

Prenasalized consonants

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In Adamawa Fulfulde, there are 4 prenasalized consonants. Prenasalized consonants are written as a digraph (combination of two consonants). The first letter of the digraph representing a prenasalized consonant cannot take any diacritic, including zero-vowel diacritic sukun '◌ْ‎'.

Adamawa Fulfulde prenasalized Consonant Digraphs[11]
Forms Sound represented Latin equivalent Example
Isolated Final Medial Initial Fulfulde Word Meaning
مب ـمب ـمبـ مبـ [ᵐb] mb مبَرُغٛ
mbarugo
ڢٛمبِنَ
fombina
to Kill

South
نج ـنج ـنجـ نجـ [ⁿd͡ʒ] nj نجَارٜىٰندِ
njaareendi
مِسَنجَ
mi sanja
مِوَانجَ
mi waanja
sand

I change

I pour out
ند ـند - - [ⁿd] nd ندِيَمْ
ndiyam
سٜندُغٛ
sendugo
حٜندُ
hendu
جٛوندٜ
joonde
water

to separate

wind

place
نغ ـنغ ـنغـ نغـ [ⁿg]/[ŋ] ng / ŋ نغَرٛلْ
ŋarol
ࢡِنغْغٜلْ
ɓiŋgel
عٛوَنغْغَ
O waŋga
نغَيْنَاکَ
ngaynaaka
يَيْنَنغٛ
yaynango
beauty

child

he shows

pasture

to shine to

Vowels and diacritics

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Like other languages that have historically been written within what's known as the Ajami tradition, there is a full relaince on diacritics for writing vowels. All vowels are written with diacritics. In Arabic there are only three diacritics, which represent [a] '◌َ‎', [u] [i] '◌ُ‎', and [i] '◌ِ‎'. The general tradition is that when there are vowels that don't exist in Arabic, new diacritics are created. In Adamawa Fulfulde these include the Quranic imāla '◌ٜ‎' for vowel [e], and a special diacritic '◌ٛ‎' for vowel [o].[11]

Unlike Arabic orthography, or other Arabic-derived scripts, in Ajami tradition, all diacritics are written. Even letters that don't have any vowels, are written with a zero-vowel/sukun '◌ْ‎' diacritic. Only in the following instances are letters written without a diacritic:[11]

Vowels are lengthened by combining the diacritic with a follow-up letter, just as is the tradition in Arabic. These follow-up letters are written without a diacritic.
Letters miimi 'مـ‎' and nuunu 'نـ‎' can be part of a digraph representing prenasalized consonants. In these instances, these two letters are written without a diacritic.
Vowel at beginning of word[11]
A E I O U
عَـ / عَ عٜـ / عٜ عِـ / عِ عٛـ / عٛ عُـ / عُ
Aa Ee Ii Oo Uu
عَا عٜىٰـ / عٜىٰ عِيـ / عِي عٛو عُو
Vowel at middle and end of word[11]
a e i o u
◌َ ◌ٜ ◌ِ ◌ٛ ◌ُ ◌ْ
aa ee ii oo uu
◌َا / ـَا ◌ٜىٰـ / ـٜىٰـ
◌ٜىٰ / ـٜىٰ
◌ِيـ / ـِيـ
◌ِي / ـِي
◌ٛو / ـٛو ◌ُو / ـُو

Adamawa Fulfulde Latin alphabet

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Adamawa Fulfulde Latin alphabet[12]
A a Aa aa B b Ɓ ɓ C c D d Ɗ ɗ E e Ee ee F f G g H h I i Ii ii J j K k Kh kh L l M m
[ʔ] [] [a] [b] [ɓ] [t͡ʃ]‍~[ʃ] [d] [ɗ] [e] [] [f] [g] [h] [i] [] [d͡ʒ]~[z] [k] [h]~[x] [l] [m]
Mb mb N n Nd nd Ng ng Nj nj Ny ny O o Oo oo P p R r Rr rr S s T t U u Uu uu W w Y y Ŋ ŋ Ƴ ƴ
[ᵐb] [n] [ⁿd] [ᵑɡ] [ᶮd͡ʒ] [ɲ] [o] [] [p] [ɾ] [r] [s] [t] [u] [] [w] [j] [ŋ] []

Sample text

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Passage from the Bible, Book of Acts, Chapter 9, verses 4 and 5:[11]

Translation 4 He fell to the ground and heard a voice say to him, "Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?" 5 "Who are you, Lord?" Saul asked. "I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting," he replied.
Latin script 4 O do’’i haa lesdi, o nani sawtu ɗon wi’a mo: "Sol, Sol! Koni toonyontooɗa mi?" 5 O ƴami: "An a moy, Jawmiraawo?" Sawtu go jaabi: "Min woni Iisa ni tionyotooɗa.
Ajami script ٤ عٛدٛعِّ حَا لٜسْدِ، عٛنَنِ سَوْتُ طٛنْ وِعَ مٛ:‌ «سٛلْ، سٛلْ! کٛنِ تٛوࢩٛتٛوطَ مِ؟» ٥ عٛࢨَمِ: «عَنْ عَ مٛيْ، جَوْمُرَاوٛ؟» سَوْتُ غٛ جَابِ:‌ «مِنْ وٛنِ عِيسَى مٛ تٛوࢩٛتٛوطَ؞»

References

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  1. ^ a b c Adamawa Fulfulde at Ethnologue (26th ed., 2023)  
  2. ^ "OLAC resources in and about the Adamawa Fulfulde language". www.language-archives.org.
  3. ^ VerEecke, Catherine (1994). "The Slave Experience in Adamawa: Past and Present Perspectives from Yola (Nigeria) (Une approche historique de l'esclavage dans l'Adamawa du XIXe siècle à nos jours)". Cahiers d'Études Africaines. 34 (133/135): 28–29. doi:10.3406/cea.1994.2039. ISSN 0008-0055. JSTOR 4392512.
  4. ^ Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D. (December 9, 2023). "Ethnologue: Languages of the World". SIL International.
  5. ^ Kouega, Jean-Paul (2007). A Dictionary of Cameroon English Usage. Peter Lang. p. 27. ISBN 978-3-03911-027-8.
  6. ^ a b "Fulfulde, Adamawa | Ethnologue Free". Ethnologue (Free All).
  7. ^ "WALS Online - Datapoint Fulfulde (Adamawa) / Order of Degree Word and Adjective". wals.info.
  8. ^ "Fula". www.languagesgulper.com.
  9. ^ "WALS Online - Datapoint Fulfulde (Adamawa) / Order of Subject, Object and Verb". wals.info.
  10. ^ Priest, Lorna A.; Hosken, Martin (12 August 2010). Proposal to add Arabic script characters for African and Asian languages (PDF). (Archive)
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i Clark, Scott (2007). Alphabet and orthography statement for Fulfulde [FUB] Ajamiya (found in Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad and Central African Republic) (PDF). Yaoundé: SIL. (Archive)
  12. ^ Scriptsouce Writing System. Contributor: Lorna Evans Adamawa Fulfulde written with Latin scriptfub-Latn [1]

Further reading

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  • Adamawa Fulfulde Bible Translation (Ajami Script). [2]
  • Adamawa Fulfulde Video, "History of the prophets". [3]