Wikipedia

Draft:Effects of Hurricane Hugo in the Caribbean

Hurricane Hugo
Hurricane Hugo approaching the Lesser Antilles on 28 September
Meteorological history
Duration16–21 September 1989
Category 4 major hurricane
1-minute sustained (SSHWS/NWS)
Highest winds140 mph (220 km/h)
Overall effects
Fatalities46
Damage$4.01 billion (1989 USD)
Areas affectedLesser Antilles, Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic
Part of the 1989 Atlantic hurricane season

Hurricane Hugo brought major devastation to the Caribbean during the 1989 Atlantic hurricane season.

Preparations

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Barbados served as a staging area for disaster response in the Caribbean due to its strategic position in the region and distance away from Hugo's forecast impacts.[1] Several relief agencies had convened in Barbados earlier in 1989 to coordinate hurricane response plans. These agencies were mobilized ahead of Hugo's arrival in the Lesser Antilles. They were joined by additional teams from the United States Agency for International Development and the U.S. Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance (OFDA). Additional relief teams from the OFDA, Pan American Health Organization, Red Cross, and United Nations Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief Coordinator were pre-positioned in Antigua to survey the damage and prioritize aid in Hugo's aftermath.[2]: 1  Civil defense officials in Dominica and Guadeloupe prepared shelters to house evacuees. Non-critical patients at Princess Margaret Hospital in Roseau, Dominica were sent home beginning on 15 September to free space for possible hurricane victims. The government of Dominica urged its citizens to take emergency precautions. The Dominican Ministry of Public Works prepositioned earthmoving equipment around Dominica to clear landslide debris. A curfew in Guadeloupe mandating that streets be clear of pedestrians and vehicles came into effect at 6 p.m. AST on 17 September. Leading up to the curfew, residents rushed hardware stores and supermarkets to stock up on supplies. Many on the Atlantic-facing side of Guadeloupe evacuated farther inland.[3] Cable television played a significant role in keeping residents of Martinique updated on the hurricane's approach.[4] Though no formal evacuation order was enacted for Martinique, the prefect of Martinique recommended the evacuation of the low-lying Kinsale area on 16 September. Twenty-four evacuation shelters were opened throughout the island.[5] Disaster preparedness plans were set into motion by Martinique's government ministries, dispatching crews to board windows and secure buildings.[6] Air France canceled its three Martinique-bound flights from Paris scheduled for 18 September;[3] flights to the Lesser Antilles were largely canceled by the afternoon of 16 September. Most buildings in Antigua were shuttered by noon on 17 September and all local ships were brought to their moorings. V. C. Bird International Airport closed and the island's electric grid was turned off.[3][7]

Across both Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, 217 shelters were opened; over 161,000 people sought refuge in these shelters.[8] Although warnings from the NHC afforded ample time for preparations, shelters were required to be provisioned longer than in typical hurricanes.[9] Some of these shelters took heavy damage during Hugo, and one required evacuation by civil defense authorities after its windows gave way to the wind.[10] Shelters in Saint Croix housed 1,000 evacuees.[11] Operations at Cyril E. King Airport in Saint Thomas were suspended on the afternoon of 17 September.[12] Banks, courts, government offices, and schools were also closed throughout the region.[13] Evacuations in Puerto Rico began at dawn on 17 September and were completed in eight hours.[10] Most of the 166 shelters opened in Puerto Rico were public schools.[14] More than 2,000 troops from the United States National Guard were mobilized in Puerto Rico;[15] in San Juan, National Guardsmen and volunteers drove around the city issuing emergency instructions over loudspeakers.[11]

At least 30,000 people evacuated in Puerto Rico, making it one of the largest evacuations in the territory's history; government and media representatives described the evacuation as "the best coordinated weather event they could recall."[16][8] Three thousand people evacuated from southeastern Puerto Rico and five thousand evacuated from San Juan neighborhoods.[17] However, many were initially reluctant to leave.[18] La Perla was evacuated for the first time in living memory.[19] Hundreds of evacuees were brought to a stadium in Mayagüez.[11] The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport terminated all scheduled flights at 6 p.m. AST on 17 September. All international airlines evacuated their aircraft from Puerto Rico, though one Airbus A300 owned by American Airlines was left behind for emergency use.[11] Tourists left en masse on departing flights before the airport terminated operations.[20] Cruise ships with San Juan as their port of call were rerouted elsewhere. One person was killed in Utuado, Puerto Rico, after being electrocuted by a power line while preparing for the storm.[11][21]: A5  On 18 September, Puerto Rican Governor Rafael Hernández Colón ordered a shutdown of the island's electric grid to mitigate damage.[14] A state of emergency was declared in the Dominican Republic on 18 September.[22]: 1A  Four international airports were closed that day and businesses began to fortify against Hugo's effects. Civil defense officials aided preparations in Puerto Plata and evacuated a beach there.[23]: 14A  A Boeing 727 charter evacuated 135 vacationers from the city.[24]: A-1 

Impact

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Hugo was the strongest storm to traverse the northeastern Caribbean since Hurricane David in 1979.[3][11] The Sea, Lake, and Overland Surge from Hurricanes (SLOSH) model estimated that storm surge from Hugo led to coastal water levels 3–4 ft (0.91–1.22 m) above normal tidal heights along Saint Croix and the eastern end of Puerto Rico.[25] These equated to storm surge heights of around 7–8 ft (2.1–2.4 m).[26] Water levels of 2–3 ft (0.61–0.91 m) above normal were estimated to have occurred along the northern coast of Puerto Rico.[25] Rainfall on the Caribbean islands averaged between 5–10 in (130–250 mm).[15] The NHC's preliminary report on the hurricane enumerated 28 fatalities in the eastern Caribbean while media reports tallied over 30.[25][27] As many as 100,000 people may have been left homeless throughout the region as a result of Hugo.[27]

Guadeloupe and Montserrat were hardest-hit among the Leeward Islands, and collectively suffered over $1 billion in damage and recorded 21 fatalities.[25][28][29] Though less severe, widespread damage was also inflicted by Hugo across the remainder of the Leeward and Windward Islands. Extensive flooding occurred on Antigua, and power outages befell the island after utility poles were uprooted by the storm.[11] The damage was heaviest towards the southern portions of the island as the center of Hugo passed 50 mi (80 km) south.[2]: 3  There were 2 deaths and 181 injuries. Another 509 people were left homeless following damage wrought to 15 percent of homes.[30] Partial damage was documented on 1,500 homes and total loss was documented on 106. Thirty percent of fishing vessels were also damaged by the hurricane, equating to thousands of boats.[2]: 3 [27] The total cost of damage reached nearly EC$200 million.[30] Hugo's damage toll in Saint Kitts and Nevis amounted to $46 million,[31] largely sustained by shoreline structures and crops.[28] This equated to 32 percent of the country's gross domestic product.[32] Homes, government buildings, and trees were damaged by the storm.[27][33] A fifth of the country was rendered homeless and the entire populace lost power and water.[31] Ninety percent of the residents of Nevis lost their homes. One person was killed after a wall collapsed upon him.[27][34]

 
Hugo's path in the Caribbean

Dominica was most affected among the Windward Islands.[35] Hugo ruined 80 percent of the island's banana crop and interrupted water supplies.[28] Coastal roads were damaged by the hurricane's choppy seas; a washout along a primary thoroughfare isolated the village of Dubique.[27] Bridges and storm drains also took heavy damage.[36] Landslides isolated towns for many days.[28] The damage toll in Dominica totaled $20 million.[32] Winds in Martinique reached 60 mph (97 km/h) on the Caravelle peninsula. Some banana plantations near Macouba were damaged, though wind-related damage in Martinique was otherwise minimal. Moderate rains, peaking at 5.67 inches (144 mm) in La Médaille, led to some mudslides. Rough seas flooded parts of Fort-de-France and damaged piers along the Alfassa Boulevard. Beach erosion also occurred along Martinique beaches.[37]

The hurricane moved near the Virgin Islands and made two landfalls in Puerto Rico as it egressed the Caribbean, causing considerable destruction. Estimates of the damage toll in this region vary but include over $50 million each for the British Virgin Islands and Netherlands Antilles, $2 billion for Puerto Rico, and $500 million for Saint Croix.[27][10][38][39] Hugo's center was 85 mi (137 km) southwest of Sint Maarten at its closest approach; a station there reported a maximum sustained wind 46 mph (74 km/h) and a peak gust of 78 mph (126 km/h).[25] These winds unroofed homes and uprooted trees and power lines.[21]: A5  Roughly 25 sailboats sustained severe damage and one boat with four people went missing.[27] Sint Eustatius and Saba of the Netherlands Antilles lost much of their vegetation. Many homes, piers, and public buildings suffered severe damage on the two islands.[40] Eleven people were killed in the Netherlands Antilles and caused $50 million in damage there.[39] The damage toll in the British Virgin Islands exceeded $50 million, with the loss of at least half of the islands' agriculture. Around 30 percent of homes were unroofed.[27] Power outages affected the British Virgin Islands. The Associated Press reported "numerous injuries" and "scores of homes destroyed" on Tortola, the largest island in the BVI.[33] A third of the island's private homes were wrecked.[27] The hurricane also caused widespread power outages in the Dominican Republic while tracking northwest towards the continental United States.[22]: 4A 

Guadeloupe

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Guadeloupe sustained the heaviest impacts among the Leeward Islands from Hugo.[11] The hurricane made landfall on the island at 05:00 UTC on 17 September (01:00 a.m. AST) as a Category 4 hurricane with sustained winds at 140 mph (230 km/h).[25] This made Hugo the strongest hurricane to strike Guadeloupe since a hurricane each in 1899 and 1928.[28][41] A minimum air pressure of 941.1 mbar (hPa; 27.79 inHg) was recorded at La Désirade and 943 mbar in Raizet,[25][42] with a 97-mile-per-hour (156 km/h) wind gust documented in the last weather observation transmitted from Pointe-à-Pitre.[43] A ship in the wharf at Pointe-à-Pitre estimated a gust of 184 mph (296 km/h).[44] Though unmeasured, French meteorological service Météo-France estimates that wind gusts may have reached 200 mph (320 km/h).[37] The effects of Hugo lasted for about 12 hours in Guadeloupe, with the strongest winds occurring within a 3-hour window. Rainfall totals ranged from 3.1 inches (79 mm) along the southern part of Guadeloupe to 13.8 inches (350 mm) in more mountainous areas.[42] Hourly rainfall rates averaged roughly 2 inches (51 mm) per hour in the core of the hurricane.[44] A station in Gardel documented 3.66 inches (93 mm) of rain in one hour.[37] Along Grand Cul-de-Sac Marin, storm surge from Hugo elevated the seas from 8 to 10 ft (2.4 to 3.0 m) above mean sea level.[42]

Telecommunications were knocked out by the storm throughout Guadeloupe as winds brought down power and telephone lines.[11][15] The island of La Désirade completely lost radio contact with the outside world. Three thousand houses, predominantly wooden shanties, were unroofed.[15] Approximately half of Pointe-a-Pitre, Guadeloupe's largest city, was destroyed.[43] Part of the control tower at Pointe-à-Pitre International Airport was wrecked and the airport's radio antenna was knocked down.[45][46]: 12A  Lower sections of Sainte-Rose were inundated by storm surge, resulting in considerable damage.[44] However, the storm's trajectory relative to Guadeloupe prevented a more damaging surge event from occurring.[44][47] Saint-François was largely destroyed, with nearly half of houses remaining. Several tourist hotels there sustained heavy damage. Two people were killed in Le Moule, that been damaged at nearly 80 percent.[11] The entirety of Guadeloupe's banana crop and most of its coconut palms and sugar cane crops were ruined by Hugo. The storm also wiped out most of the island's fishing fleet,[28] and many ships were grounded by 24-foot (7.3 m) waves.[27] Debris blocked 70 percent of roads.[48] There were 11 fatalities attributed to Hugo in Guadeloupe.[43] Another 107 people were injured and 35,000 were rendered homeless. The damage toll in Guadeloupe amounted to $880 million.[28]

Montserrat

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Hugo traversing the northeastern Caribbean on 17 September as a Category 4 hurricane

Although Montserrat was struck by many significant storms in the 18th and 19th centuries, the last major hurricane to strike the island before Hugo occurred in 1928.[49] The right-front quadrant of Hugo's eyewall moved over Montserrat on 17 September, raking the island with sustained winds of 140 mph (230 km/h).[28] The island may have also experienced wind gusts up to 240 mph (390 km/h).[50] The hurricane exacted a heavy toll over the course of 14 hours.[51] Hugo was the costliest hurricane in Montserrat's history, inflicting $260 million in damage.[28] Entire villages were destroyed by the storm and vegetation was stripped bare.[2]: 4  Most houses on the island were razed or seriously damaged, displacing 11,000 of Montserrat's 12,000 residents.[28] At least minor damage was dealt to nearly every building on the island, with severe damage inflicted on half of all buildings.[51] Approximately ninety percent of homes suffered either major to total roof loss,[52] with the most severe damage occurring in the Kinsale and St. Patrick's areas. Impacts on upscale hotels contributed to the overall loss of 88 percent of hotel rooms on the island.[50] Structural and water damage was sustained by hotels.[27]

All government buildings and schools in Montserrat were impacted.[53] The headquarters of the Montserrat government lost much of its roof. Air traffic control facilities at W. H. Bramble Airport were destroyed and the airport terminal was seriously damaged.[50] The 180-foot (55 m) stone jetty at Plymouth was destroyed by Hugo's 20-foot (6.1 m) waves.[28] Livingstone's port was destroyed.[51] Damage to the fishing sector, including ships, buildings, and equipment, totaled US$5.1 million.[2]: 4  The island's power grid was left entirely dysfunctional following the storm across both high and low voltage distribution networks.[52] All supply lines and the generator operated by Molec, Montserrat's electricity company, were incapacitated.[51] All major communications facilities were destroyed.[50] Heavy rainfall with accumulations of up to 7 in (180 mm) triggered mudslides; one at the foot of Chances Peak wrecked 21 homes.[28] Radio and microwave transmission towers atop the mountain were toppled and twisted by the hurricane.[50] Strong winds also downed thousands of trees and utility poles.[54] Ten people were killed in Montserrat and 89 others were injured.[2]: 4 [28]

Aftermath

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Relief crews attending a beached sailboat in Saint Croix

Lesser Antilles

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A plane bearing 60 rescue workers and emergency supplies was sent to Guadeloupe from Paris on 19 September, with two more relief aircraft held on standby.[11] The crews were tasked with sheltering the homeless, restoring electricity service, and clearing roads.[45] Doctors were also sent to Guadeloupe from La Meynard Hospital in Martinique.[46]: 12  Emergency supplies from Paris were gathered by Catholic Air and Red Cross.[11] Military aircraft delivered 50 tons (45 tonnes) of supplies and over 500 emergency workers to Guadeloupe, along with Minister of Overseas France Louis Le Pensec;[22]: 4A  3,000 soldiers also accompanied the transport.[36] The total cost of repairs on the island was estimated at over €610 million.[55] Two days after Hugo's passage, an Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma rescue helicopter crashed in La Désirade, killing nine people.[55] The Guadeloupe government held a competition to design homes that would be quickly built to house the island's homeless population; five of thirty models were selected, and the first homes were built five months after Hugo.[56] The banana industry in Guadeloupe required FF466 million to recover, while the island's hotel industry suffered FF152 million in losses.[44]

The emergency operations center in Montserrat was formally activated on 18 September to effectively deal with the aftermath of Hugo. As more robust communication systems were destroyed by the storm, communications between the island and the outside world were primarily handled by amateur radio.[57][2]: 1  Urgent requests for aid were forwarded by ham radio operators to all embassies and foreign missions in Barbados.[36] The island's reduced radio capabilities were augmented by HMS Alacrity when she arrived in Plymouth on 18 September. The ship also brought a helicopter and a crew of 100 sailors that aided in cleaning up roads between Plymouth and W. H. Bramble Airport.[57][2]: 1  Extensive effort was required to clean up Montserrat's roads due to the prevalence of debris.[2]: 4  Along with the crew of the Alacrity, the Barbados Defence Force and Jamaica Defence Force also assisted in road cleanup operations in Montserrat.[2]: 2  The International Rescue Corps maintained a satellite communications link and provided support for 21 national and international organizations in recovery efforts. Rationing on petroleum was enforced, with a limit of four gallons (15 liters) per person. Waterborne illnesses in Hugo's aftermath proved fatal in Montserrat. A temporary hospital was established at the Montserrat Government House following the destruction of a recently completed hospital.[51]

Virgin Islands

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President Bush declared the U.S. Virgin Islands a disaster area.[27] A temporary air traffic control tower was erected at Alexander Hamilton Airport in Saint Croix six days after the storm. Cyril E. King Airport in Saint Thomas, having suffered less damage, resumed operations within 24 hours. Power was restored in most of Saint Croix and Saint Thomas within three months. The islands' telephone systems were badly crippled by the storm, and only limited service was restored to businesses in December 1989. Some private residences in Saint Croix remained without telephone service until March 1990.[14] Between 300–500 prisoners were freed from prison in Saint Croix after the storm, either by escaping or by release due to food and water shortages in the prison.[27] The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) dispatched a C-141 airlifter with government relief workers and communications equipment to Saint Croix.[58] The demographics of the Virgin Islands a year after Hugo reflected the hurricane's impact: roughly 10% of Saint Croix's populace did not return to the island within a year of Hugo. A smaller exodus occurred at Saint Thomas and Saint John.[59]

Three days after the storm hit, the Governor of the United States Virgin Islands Alexander Farrelly asked President Bush for federal assistance in restoring order to the island.[60] On the island of Saint Croix, looting and lawlessness reigned in the aftermath of Hugo.[61][62]: 1A  FBI agents, U.S. marshals, and local police initially maintained a patrol of Frederiksted and Christiansted while the U.S. Coast Guard evacuated tourists from the island;[63][64]: A1  the USCGC Bear evacuated 40 people and sent personnel onshore to monitor the situation.[64]: A6  However, local law enforcement in Saint Croix was unable to stop widespread looting, with armed gangs reportedly taking root the streets of Christiansted.[65] The Atlanta Constitution reported that some members of the local police and National Guard also took part in looting.[64] For the first time since the Baltimore riot of 1968, American troops were deployed in response to a domestic civil disturbance; with the authorization of U.S. President George H. W. Bush under the Insurrection Act of 1807, the Pentagon sent 1,100 troops and federal marshals to augment the security presence as local police and the National Guard lost control of the situation.[63][27][64]: A1  Among the deployments were 470 troops from the 16th Military Police Brigade, 560 troops from the 503rd Military Police Battalion, and three helicopters and medical support.[64]: A6  Dubbed Operation Hawkeye, the operation involved elements of the Army, Navy and the Coast Guard, along with a contingent from the U.S. Marshals Service and the FBI, forming Joint Task Force (JTF) 40 for Operation Hawkeye.[60] It also resulted in the first operational deployment of the National Disaster Medical System (NDMS), when the New Mexico-1 Disaster Medical Assistance Team (DMAT) was deployed to assist in medical care needs of the stricken island.[66] The first contingent arrived in Saint Croix on the morning of 21 September to secure an airfield and devise the command structure for the other arriving troops.[67]

National Basketball Association player Tim Duncan, born in Christiansted and a two-time NBA MVP, of the San Antonio Spurs attributed his basketball career to Hurricane Hugo's destruction. When Tim was 13 years old, he was a competitive swimmer who was considered one of the top United States competitors for the 400-meter freestyle. However, in the aftermath of Hugo, every swimming pool on Saint Croix was destroyed, including the Olympic-size swimming pool. With no pool to practice in, Duncan turned to basketball. Tim Duncan said, "I'm very fortunate to be where I am today. Without Hugo, I might still be swimming."[68] On 4 April 2020, it was announced that Duncan would be inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame on 29 August.[69][70]

Puerto Rico

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Puerto Rican Governor Hernandez Colón solicited a disaster declaration for Puerto Rico from President Bush after surveying the damage wrought by Hugo.[23]: 1A  The U.S. Department of the Interior allocated $500,000 in aid to Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands.[71] Police were dispatched to retail areas, offices of political parties, and the main San Juan post office to avert looting.[23]: 14A  An emergency clinic served in place of the destroyed hospital in Culebra.[36] Governor Colón estimated that the number of those displaced by Hugo in Puerto Rico exceeded 50,000.[65] Over 25,000 people in Culebra and Vieques remained in shelters after Hugo as their homes were destroyed.[10] The Puerto Rican school system was hindered by the damage inflicted on the schools themselves, their use as shelters, and the loss of water and power service.[14] Due to a lack of planning for housing shelter residents, 500 schools remained closed weeks after the storm, affecting at least 150,000 students.[10] The loss of water caused two hospitals to refuse patient admission on 20 September.[14]

While power in San Juan was largely restored within 48 hours, many in Puerto Rico remained without power in the days following Hugo. On 24 September, 47,500 businesses and homes in Puerto Rico were without power; the San Juan Star reported that a quarter of electricity customers in Fajardo remained without electric service on October 9, three weeks after Hugo struck the island. Residents of Puerto Rico's northeastern coast were encouraged to boil water to curtail the spread of food- and waterborne diseases, though power outages prevented most from doing so. Repair costs for Puerto Rico Electric Power Authority poles and wires amounted to $50 million; some repair efforts may have been undermined by the looting of copper wire in Hugo's aftermath.[14] At least six workers were killed while repairing power lines.[38] Equipment from the continental U.S. for the restoration of Puerto Rican water supplies arrived beginning on 22 September, with the capacity to produce over 200,000 gallons (760,000 liters) of potable water daily. USAF sent power generators, plastic sheeting for repairs, and 200,000 [63] The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers distributed over 2 million gallons (7.6 million liters) of water using 33 tank trucks, with the costs subsidized by the U.S. government.[14] U.S. Coast Guard C-130s and two cutters were sent to San Juan to render aid and deliver supplies. From its supply centers in the continental U.S., the American Red Cross amassed supplies for victims in Puerto Rico and mounted its largest domestic relief effort in four years.[58][72]

References

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  4. ^ Berke and Wenger, p. 14.
  5. ^ Berke and Wenger, p. 17.
  6. ^ Berke and Wenger, p. 18–19.
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  46. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference BoresIn was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
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  52. ^ a b Saffir, Herbert S. (1991). "Hurricane Hugo and Implications for Design Professionals and Code-Writing Authorities". Journal of Coastal Research (8). Coral Gables, Florida: Coastal Education & Research Foundation, Inc.: 25–32. ISSN 0749-0208. JSTOR 25735405. (subscription required)
  53. ^ Berke and Wenger, p. i.
  54. ^ Berke and Wenger, p. 22.
  55. ^ a b Yacou, Yasmina (16 September 2018). "Il y a 29 ans, le cyclone Hugo ravageait la Guadeloupe". FranceInfo (in French). France TV. Archived from the original on 25 April 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
  56. ^ "Cyclone Hugo: la reconstruction éclair". Le 97.fr (in French). Le97.fr. 24 June 2010. Archived from the original on 2 August 2020. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
  57. ^ a b Berke and Wenger, p. 23–24.
  58. ^ a b "Huge effort to aid islands organized". Palm Beach Post. West Palm Beach, Florida. Associated Press. 20 September 1989. p. 9A. Retrieved 30 May 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  59. ^ FEMA, pp. 9–12.
  60. ^ a b "Operation Hawkeye". www.globalsecurity.org. Archived from the original on 11 September 2005. Retrieved 13 September 2005.
  61. ^ York, Michael (1 October 1989). "St. Croix's Climate Proved Explosive After Hurricane Hugo Hit The Island". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 13 October 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2017. Virtually everything worth stealing was gone within a day. With one exception, all of St. Croix's major grocery stores were sacked. The surviving store's stock remained intact only because 10 armed members of the owner's family kept a vigil on the roof. A senior Virgin Islands police official said he could not reach most of his officers during the 24 hours after the eye of the hurricane struck about midnight. He said he saw several of the officers, members of the National Guard and even a few current and former legislators among looters in downtown Christiansted.
  62. ^ Harrison, Carlos (20 September 1989). "Looters hit devastated St. Croix". The Miami Herald. Miami, Florida. pp. 1A, 13A. Retrieved 30 May 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  63. ^ a b c Perez, Vilma (22 September 1989). "Motors, power generators and other equipment arrived from the..." United Press International. San Juan, Puerto Rico. Retrieved 31 May 2020.
  64. ^ a b c d e Malone, Julia (21 September 1989). "Bush Order U.S. Troops To St. Croix". The Atlanta Constitution. pp. A1, A6. Retrieved 4 June 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
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  71. ^ "Thousands homeless in Caribbean". The Journal-News. White Plains, New York. Associated Press. 19 September 1989. p. A1. Retrieved 29 May 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  72. ^ Burson, Pat (20 September 1989). "Local Red Cross". The Atlanta Constitution. Atlanta, Georgia. p. A10. Retrieved 4 June 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
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