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Draft:Liechtenstein in World War II

Liechtenstein remained neutral throughout World War II, and its neutrality was not violated by any of its combatants. The country sought to align itself as closely as possible to Switzerland in hopes of retaining this neutrality.

Prior to the war, Liechtenstein faced a tense relationship with Nazi Germany, with the Rotter kidnapping being motivated by German press attacks against Liechtenstein and Nazi sympathisers within the country. Early internal challenges were also represented by the Liechtenstein Homeland Service, which leaned towards Nazism and the abolition of party politics. Though the party merged with the Christian-Social People's Party in 1936, Nazi elements remained, resulting in the 1937 spy affair, where Liechtensteiner Vaterland editor Carl Freiherr von Vogelsang denounced Jews in Liechtenstein and sent numerous letters detailing them to officials in Nazi Germany.

Nazi sympathies within Liechtenstein were galvanized following the Anschluss of Austria in 1938, which was used as an impetus for the formation of the German National Movement in Liechtenstein (VBDL), a domestic Nazi party within Liechtenstein. At the same time, the governing Progressive Citizens' Party and opposition Patriotic Union formed a coalition government primarily motivated to avoid political deadlock while there was ongoing threats from Nazi Germany and, more importantly, to prevent the VBDL from gaining any seats within the Landtag of Liechtenstein. The country was put under threat again by the 1939 Liechtenstein putsch, which was intended to provoke Liechtenstein's annexation into Nazi Germany, however the plan failed, weakening Nazi elements within Liechtenstein.

Background

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Liechtenstein was neutral throughout World War I. However, until the end of the war, it was closely tied to Austria-Hungary due to the customs union that had existed between the two countries since 1852 and was sympathetic to the Central Powers. The majority of the Liechtenstein government did not expect the war to last long, thus no food or economic preparations were made for it.[1] The Entente powers imposed an economic embargo on Liechtenstein in 1916.[2] The country faced economic devastation and food shortages as a result due to the lack of natural resources, which increased smuggling within the country significantly and forced the country to reduce its reliance on Austria-Hungary and seek closer economic ties with Switzerland.[2][3] By 1916 all food deliveries from Austria-Hungary had ceased, which forced Liechtenstein to seek closer ties with Switzerland in order to ensure food deliveries continued.[1][4]

In 1919, following the dissolution of Austria-Hungary, the Liechtenstein government could no longer rely on Austria to fulfil their monetary and diplomatic needs. Liechtenstein and Switzerland signed a treaty under which Switzerland assumed the representation of Liechtenstein's interests at the diplomatic and consular level in countries where it maintains a representation and Liechtenstein does not.[5][6] Liechtenstein adopted the Swiss franc in 1920 and the two countries entered a customs union in 1924.[7] In 1921, a new constitution was introduced that established the rule of partial parliamentary democracy mixed with that of constitutional monarchy, much of which was loosely based on the Swiss Federal Constitution.[8]

Pre-war Nazi challenges in Liechtenstein

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Early relations with Nazi Germany and Rotter kidnapping

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Further information: Rotter kidnapping

Upon the rise of Nazi Germany in 1933, relations between Liechtenstein and the country were tense.[9] A particular area of contention was with Fritz and Alfred Rotter, who worked as writers and composers and owned multiple successful theatres in Berlin during the era of the Weimar Republic. However, by 1933, due to the two men's Jewish backgrounds, they became the target of pressure contemporaneous with the rise of Nazism in Germany, and in January 1933, they were forced to declare bankruptcy and emigrate to Liechtenstein.[10] They had previously succeeded in being naturalized in 1931 as a result of a wider initiative by the Liechtenstein government.[11] As a result of this, Liechtenstein became the target of attacks by German press outlets. In particular, the Rotters became the target of attacks from the press, who falsely accused them of faking their bankruptcy and transferring their money abroad. As a result, it was publicly demanded that the two men be extradited back to Nazi Germany to face trial.[11] Prime minister Josef Hoop attempted to use private contacts and offered informal support to the German government, where he considered appealing to Otto Meissner in order for the press attacks to end.[12]

 
The health resort in Gaflei, the location of the kidnapping, pictured in 1930

However, four local Liechtensteiners (Rudolf Schädler [de], Franz Roeckle [de], Peter Rheinbeger, and Eugen Frommelt) sympathetic to Nazi Germany used the German press demands as an impetus to kidnap Fritz and Alfred Rotter and forcefully extradite them to Nazi Germany, which was intended to coincide with the formation of an organized Nazi Party in Liechtenstein. The men were assisted by five German nationals within the country from Konstanz.[11][12] On 5 April 1933, Fritz and Alfred Rotter, along with Alfred's wife, Gertrud Rotter, and Fritz's domestic partner, Julie Wolff, were convinced by Rudolf Schädler to stay at a health resort in Gaflei in the Alps, which he managed. Once they arrived, the four men, along with the five other German nationals, attempted to kidnap them and throw them into cars. The plan was unsuccessful, and all four victims were able to fight back and escape on foot.[11][13] Despite this, Alfred and Gertrud later died after falling into a ravine, whereas Fritz and Julie Wolff were both injured but managed to escape and inform the Liechtenstein government.[11]

Following the kidnapping attempt, three of the men involved were arrested in Liechtenstein, whereas the rest were caught while attempting to flee through Götzis in Austria, after which they were extradited back to Liechtenstein. In June 1933, the men went on trial for the kidnapping. Notably however, both the deaths of Alfred and Gertrud and the political motivation behind the kidnapping were deliberately downplayed in order to avoid further press attacks from Nazi Germany. Fritz Rotter's lawyer, Wladimir Rosenbaum, was prevented from reading his plea where he directly criticized the Nazis' use of violence. In addition, approximately 700 signatures were gathered demanding the pardon of the German men involved.[11]

Despite the kidnapping's intentions, it and the subsequent trials temporarily held back the formation of an organized Nazi Party in Liechtenstein.[11] In response to the kidnapping, naturalizations into Liechtenstein were discontinued until further notice, which the Liechtensteiner Nachrichten criticized.[14] The Liechtenstein government sent a diplomatic protest on 9 April 1933 to Nazi Germany and urged for both government's to work towards a solution for the press attacks to end.[15] However, Liechtenstein's desire to work with Germany independently contradicted the agreement with Switzerland to represent Liechtenstein where it did not hold representation in its own right, as such it expressed it's desire for no independent meeting between Liechtenstein and Germany to solve the issue.[16] As such on, 6 October 1933 a conference was held in Berlin with representatives from Germany and Switzerland, with Hoop representing Liechtenstein. At the conference, he defended the country against the allegations made by the German press. The Reich ministry demanded that Liechtenstein revise its naturalization policy, which Hoop obliged. In addition, it demanded that Schädler and Rheinbeger, who were still in prison for the kidnapping, were to be released early, as such both men were pardoned by Franz I and released the following month.[17]

Liechtenstein Homeland Service

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Further information: Liechtenstein Homeland Service
 
LHD rally on 9 December 1934. At the front, Alois Vogt can be seen on the left and Carl Freiherr von Vogelsang on the right.

The Liechtenstein Homeland Service (LHD) was formed in October 1933, with Otto Schaedler, Alois Vogt and Carl Freiherr von Vogelsang as leading members. Although the party was initially formed on the basis of an authoritarian corporate state similar to that of Austria under Engelbert Dollfuss, it quickly moved towards that of National socialism. The people behind the Rotter kidnapping also became active in the party following their release from prison.[18] This move towards Nazism caused several founding members, such as Richard Meier and Martin Risch, to abandon the party.[18][19]

The party ran an antisemitic campaign within Liechtenstein and advocated against the government's naturalization policies.[18] In addition, the party also developed a cult of personality similar to that of Nazi Germany, with the phrase 'Heil Otto!' being used towards Schaedler within the party.[20] The party's primary aims were the abolition of party politics, ending the customs union with Switzerland, and alignment towards Germany, with the eventual goal of Liechtenstein's annexation into the country.[21] The party sought out contacts within Nazi Germany, particularly within the Verein für Deutsche Kulturbeziehungen im Ausland (VDA). In doing so, Rudolf Schädler, Alois Vogt and Carl Freiherr von Vogelsang attended the 1934 Nuremberg rally as guests.[22] In a speech on 18 March 1934, both prime minister Josef Hoop and the president of the Landtag Anton Frommelt spoke out against the LHD.[18]

In 1935, the LHD formed an alliance with the Christian-Social People's Party (VP), which was referred to as the 'National Opposition'. This alliance pushed through an initiative to introduce proportional representation within the country.[23] However, the subsequent 1935 Liechtenstein electoral system referendum was narrowly rejected by voters.[24] Motivated by a desire to unite the opposition prior to the 1936 Liechtenstein general election, the VP and LHD merged on 1 January 1936 to form the Patriotic Union.[23][25] Despite the LHD being the smaller of the two parties, the new Patriotic Union was heavily influenced by it, with Otto Schaedler becoming the party president, and Alois Vogt the party secretary.[26] In addition, the two parties respective newspapers merged to form the Liechtensteiner Vaterland with Carl Freiherr von Vogelsang as its editor.[27]

Spy affair

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Main article: 1937 Liechtenstein spy affair

Starting from 1934 Carl Freiherr von Vogelsang was in active contact with the Verein für Deutsche Kulturbeziehungen im Ausland,where he gave reports regarding Liechtenstein's naturalization of Jews. Vogelsang hoped that should the Liechtenstein Homeland Service achieve power, that he would become Liechtenstein's envoy to Germany, and that he would be given a leadership position within the Hitler Youth.[28] Vogelsang had secretly been trying to become a member of the Nazi Party since 1932, and successfully did so in 1937.[29]

On 28 October 1934, Vogelsang sent a letter to Hermann Birkel, who worked in the motor transport authority in Friedrichshafen, which was intended for him to then forward to the police in the town. In the letter, he asked for the police in Friedrichshafen or the border guards in Lindau to arrest Ludwig Hasler, the head of the Liechtenstein tax office, claiming that his upcoming trip to Germany for a foreign exchange was a part of a conspiracy by German-Jewish emigrants. However, unbeknownst to Vogelsang, Birkel had left the job days prior and moved to Bludenz, where the letter was then forwarded to him, but he kept the letter instead of forwarding it as intended. In November 1936, Birkel was giving lectures in Liechtenstein schools about Vorarlberg when he gave the now two-year-old letter to prime minister Josef Hoop.[30]

On 23 January 1937 Hoop ordered for both the police to search the offices of the Vaterland and Vogelsang's apartment in Triesenberg and for any papers to be confiscated.[31] For the Patriotic Union, the affair damaged the party's credibility, and it declared that Vogelsang's activities with Nazi Germany was his own doing and that the party had no knowledge of it.[32] The next day, he was escorted out of the country in a coordinated effort by Otto Schaedler and Alois Vogt and fled to Germany.[33] This was done in order to avoid the risk of him being arrested and a subsequent trial that would further damage the reputation of the party and complicate relations with Switzerland and Nazi Germany.[32]

The Patriotic Union sought to divert attention away from itself by distancing itself from the discussions in the Landtag of Liechtenstein regarding Vogelsang's actions, and instead criticised Hoop's procedure regarding the affair.[34] The majority of the Landtag approved of Hoop's actions, but the Patriotic Union called for his resignation over the issue, claiming it to be unconstitutional.[35] Ultimately it was agreed to obtain the opinion of two legal scholars whether Hoop acted within the constitution or not, of which he himself proposed.[36] On 1 July 1937, Hans Nawiasky [de] and Hans Steiner published their opinions, where they both argued that Hoop had not acted unconstitutionally by ordering the police search. As a result, the Patriotic Union was forced to drop its calls for Hoop's resignation.[37]

Formation of the VBDL

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1938–1939 crisis

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Formation of a coalition government

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Main article: 1939 Liechtenstein general election

On 31 March 1938, in the wake of the Anschluss of Austria, Franz I made his grandnephew Franz Joseph II regent and moved to Feldberg, Czechoslovakia. Franz I later died on 25 July while at one of his family's castles, Castle Feldberg, with Franz Joseph formally succeeding him.[38][39] Although Franz stated that he had given the regency to Franz Joseph due to his old age, it was speculated that he did not wish to remain in control of the principality if Nazi Germany were to invade, primarily because his wife Elsa, Princess of Liechtenstein, was of Jewish relation.[40][41]

 
Four major political figures in Liechtenstein in 1938. From left; Alois Vogt, Otto Schaedler, Josef Hoop and Ludwig Marxer.

Under the initiative of Franz Joseph, the Progressive Citizens' Party and Patriotic Union started negotiations for the formation of a coalition government.[42] This coalition was designed to avoid political deadlock while there was ongoing threat from Nazi Germany and, more importantly, to prevent the VBDL from gaining any seats within the Landtag.[43][44] As a result of the coalition, Deputy Prime Minister of Liechtenstein Anton Frommelt, a member of the Progressive Citizens' Party, was succeeded by Alois Vogt of the Patriotic Union.[45][46] In addition, prime minister Josef Hoop's second cabinet was succeeded by a new cabinet, now containing several members of both parties.[47]

A compromise for the coalition was to introduce a proportional representation, despite it being rejected via referendum three years prior.[24][48] It was introduced unanimously on 18 January 1939.[48][49] Shortly after, Franz Joseph, in agreement with both parties, disbanded the Landtag and called for early elections.[50] The elections were only used to distribute a roughly equal number of seats in the Landtag between the two parties, as such it became known as the "silent election" as no actual voting took place.[51] This was allowed due to article thirty of the new proportional representation law, which states that "If one or more parties, representing at least 80% of the votes cast in the previous legislative elections, form a joint list of candidates, these, excluding the other candidates proposed by other parties, are declared elected, if fewer than 400 persons registered on the electoral lists do not object in writing within 14 days.".[49] The clause was enacted due to both party's desire to not hold an election campaign period that would jeopardize the recently-formed coalition government and allow for the VBDL to be able to gain support.[50]

1939 failed putsch

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Main article: 1939 Liechtenstein putsch

Citations

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  1. ^ a b Quaderer, Rupert (31 December 2011). "Erster Weltkrieg". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 28 September 2023.
  2. ^ a b Marxer, Roland (31 December 2011). "Neutralität". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 28 September 2023.
  3. ^ Burgmeier, Markus (31 December 2011). "Schmuggel". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 12 November 2023.
  4. ^ "10,000 NEUTRALS STARVING.; Swiss Government Sends Food to Liechtenstein Population". The New York Times. 21 March 1915. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 6 October 2023.
  5. ^ "Le Conseil fédéral confirme le souhait de la Principauté de représenter ses intérêts à l'étranger et propose la création d'une commission mixte pour élaborer les modalités des futures relations bilatérales". Dodis.ch. Dodis. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  6. ^ "Die liechtensteinische Gesandtschaft unterbreitet dem Politischen Departement die Grundlagen, auf welchen sich der Fürst die Vertretung des Fürstentums im Ausland wünscht". Dodis.ch. Dodis. Retrieved 2 February 2023.
  7. ^ Marxer, Roland (31 December 2011). "Zollanschlussvertrag". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  8. ^ Wille, Herbert (31 December 2011). "Verfassung". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 24 December 2023.
  9. ^ Geiger 1997, p. 51.
  10. ^ Otte 2006, p. 246.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g "Rotter-Entführung". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). 16 August 2021. Retrieved 23 March 2024.
  12. ^ a b Geiger 1997b, p. 52.
  13. ^ Kamber 2020, p. 373–400.
  14. ^ Geiger 1997, p. 55.
  15. ^ Geiger 1997b, pp. 54–55.
  16. ^ Geiger 1997b, p. 55.
  17. ^ Geiger 1997b, pp. 56–59.
  18. ^ a b c d Biedermann, Klaus; Geiger, Märten; Ospelt-Geiger, Barbara (31 December 2011). "Liechtensteiner Heimatdienst (LHD)". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 18 October 2024.
  19. ^ Büchel, Donat (31 December 2011). "Risch, Martin". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 2 September 2023.
  20. ^ Schremser, Jurgen (31 December 2011). "Schaedler (Schaedler), Otto". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 14 May 2023.
  21. ^ Geiger 1997a, pp. 374–381.
  22. ^ Geiger 1997b, p. 67.
  23. ^ a b Marxer, Wilfred (31 December 2011). "Nationale Opposition". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 13 August 2024.
  24. ^ a b Nohlen & Stöver 2010, p. 1172.
  25. ^ Marxer, Wilfried (31 December 2011). "Christlich-soziale Volkspartei (VP)". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 10 October 2024.
  26. ^ Marxer, Wilfred (31 December 2011). "Vaterländische Union (VU)". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 18 October 2024.
  27. ^ Marxer, Wilfried (2015). "Liechtensteiner Vaterland". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  28. ^ Geiger 1997a, p. 451.
  29. ^ Schremser, Jürgen (31 December 2011). "Vogelsang, Carl Freiherr von". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 20 July 2023.
  30. ^ Geiger 1997a, p. 453.
  31. ^ Geiger 1997a, p. 454.
  32. ^ a b Geiger 1997a, p. 456.
  33. ^ Geiger 1997a, p. 457.
  34. ^ Geiger 1997a, pp. 462–463.
  35. ^ Geiger 1997a, pp. 466–468.
  36. ^ Geiger 1997a, p. 470.
  37. ^ Geiger 1997a, pp. 472–473.
  38. ^ "Prince Franz to Return to Estate". Daily News. 1 April 1938. p. 216. Archived from the original on 20 April 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  39. ^ "Oldest Former Ruler Succumbs". Kenosha News. 26 July 1938. p. 1. Archived from the original on 20 April 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  40. ^ "Prince Franz of the 'Postage Stamp State' Retires". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. 1 May 1938. p. 76. Archived from the original on 21 April 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  41. ^ "NAZIS IN CABINET IN LIECHTENSTEIN; Prince Franz Joseph, the New Ruler, Names Them Though Pledging Independence HITLER MOVEMENT GAINS Its Growing Strength Was One Reason for Abdication of Franz 1, Old Sovereign". The New York Times. 1 April 1938. Retrieved 16 May 2023.
  42. ^ "Liechtenstein's Prince Franz Josef II, 83". Los Angeles Times. 15 November 1989. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
  43. ^ Büchel, Donat (31 December 2011). "Märzkrise". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 28 August 2024.
  44. ^ Marxer, Wilfred (31 December 2011). "Koalition". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 28 August 2024.
  45. ^ Schremser, Jürgen (31 December 2011). "Vogt, Alois". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 26 May 2023.
  46. ^ "Mitglieder der Regierung des Fürstentums Liechtenstein 1862-2021" (PDF). www.regierung.li. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 February 2024. Retrieved 15 February 2024.
  47. ^ Vogt 1987.
  48. ^ a b "Parties in Liechtenstein 1921-1943". Prince and People: Liechtenstein Civics (in German). 2007. Retrieved 15 May 2023.
  49. ^ a b "Gesetz vom 18. Januar 1939 - über die Einführung des Verhältniswahlrechtes". Liechtensteinische Landesverwaltung (in German). Archived from the original on 25 November 2018. Retrieved 28 August 2024.
  50. ^ a b Büchel, Donat (31 December 2011). "Stille Wahl". Historisches Lexikon des Fürstentums Liechtenstein (in German). Retrieved 15 January 2024.
  51. ^ Nohlen & Stöver 2010, p. 1179.

Bibliography

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