A supermixed electoral system is a type of mixed electoral system which uses more than one type of combination two create a hybrid of two or more electoral systems[1]. Most often, this involves a winner-take-all component combined with a proportional component.[2] The results of the combination may be mixed-member proportional (MMP), where the overall results of the elections are proportional,[3] or mixed-member majoritarian, in which case the overall results are semi-proportional, retaining disproportionalities from the majoritarian component.
Rural-urban proportional (RUP), which is a hybrid mixed system that uses two tiers: the lower tier uses a proportional system, like list-PR or STV, in urban regions, and the upper tier uses MMP (itself a mixed system) either in rural regions alone or in all regions.[4]
Types of mixed systems
editTypes of combinations
editApart from the compensatory/non-compensatory typology, a more detailed classification is possible based on how component systems relate to each other, according to academic literature. Below is a table of different categories of mixed electoral systems based on the five main types identified by Massicotte & Blais.[8] According to their terminology, methods of compensation are referred to as compensation is referred to as correction, while another type of dependent combination exists, called the conditional relation between sub-systems. Meanwhile, independent combinations mixed systems might have both local and national/regional tiers (called superposition), but some have only one at-large (national) tier, like the majority bonus system (fusion) or only a single tier for local/regional representation (called coexistence).
There are also supermixed systems,
| Combination | Type | Attributes | System | Example(s) for use |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Independent combination | Fusion | Two formulas are used within each district (or one district for the whole electorate) | Majority bonus (MBS) | France (local), French Polynesia[citation needed] |
| Coexistence (hybrid) | Different districts use different systems in one tier | e.g. FPTP/SMP in single-member districts, list-PR in multi-member districts | Democratic Republic of the Congo, Panama | |
| Superposition | Different tiers use different systems | Parallel voting (e.g. FPTP/SMP locally, list-PR nationally) | Lithuania, Russia | |
| Single vote mixed-member majoritarian (e.g. FPTP/SMP locally, list-PR nationally) | Italy, Pakistan | |||
| Dependent combination | Correction (compensation) | One formula uses the results of other to compensate | Seat linkage mixed system with partial correction for overhang seats:
New Zealand's mixed-member proportional representation (MMP) |
New Zealand |
| Seat linkage mixed system with no correction for overhang seats:
UK Additional member system (AMS) - a less proportional version of MMP |
Scotland | |||
| Single vote with seat linkage (for mixed-member proportional representation) | Lesotho | |||
| Single vote with compensatory vote transfer (semi-proportional) | Hungary (local) | |||
| Conditional | Outcome of one formula determines the other formula | e.g. conditional party block voting: party that receives more than 50%, gets all seats otherwise all seats distributed proportionally | - | |
| Combination of combinations | Supermixed | Superposition + correction | Scorporo / negative vote transfer (NVT), Parallel voting + PVT | Hungary |
| Parallel voting + AMS | South Korea | |||
| Superposition + fusion | National plurality bonus in regional list-PR | Greece | ||
| Superposition + coexistence | e.g. some elected by PR in single national district, some are elected locally by plurality | Ecuador[8] | ||
| Coexistence + conditional | e.g. FPTP/SMP in single-member districts, conditional party block voting in multi-member districts | Cameroon, Chad | ||
| Coexistence + correction | Rural-urban proportional representation (RUP) | Denmark (formerly), Iceland (formerly) | ||
| Conditional + correction + fusion | Majority jackpot systems, particularly two-round variants | Armenia, San Marino | ||
| Fusion + correction | Dual-member proportional representation (DMP) | - |
In a hybrid system, different electoral formulas are used in different contexts. These may be seen in coexistence, when different methods are used in different regions of a country, such as when FPTP is used in single-member districts and list-PR in multi-member districts, but every voter is a member of only one district (one tier). Some hybrid systems are generally not referred to as mixed systems, such as when as FPTP districts are the exception (e.g. overseas constituency) and list-PR is the rule, the overall system is usually considered proportional. Similarly, when FPTP is in single-member districts and used block voting (or party block voting) is used in multi-member districts, the system is referred to as a majoritarian one, as all components are majoritarian. Most mixed systems are not referred to as hybrid systems
Dual member mixed proportional (DMP) is a mixed compensatory system using the same principle as more common variants of MMP, except that the plurality and PR seats are paired and dedicated to dual-member (two seat) districts. Proposed as an alternative to FPTP for Canadian elections, DMP appeared as an option on a 2016 plebiscite in Prince Edward Island and a 2018 referendum in British Columbia.
Vote linkage compensatory systems
editVote linkage compensatory systems are an alternative to seat linkage compensation, currently only used in Hungary as part of a supermixed system. Such systems in use have been (inaccurately[9]) described as mixed member proportional, but they were more commonly between MMP and MMM in nature, or closer to mixed-member majoritarian representation, offering little compensatory power.
Scorporo is a two-tier mixed system similar to MMP in that voters have two votes (one for a local candidate on the lower tier, and one for a party list on the upper tier), except that disproportionality caused by the single-member district tier is partially addressed through a vote transfer mechanism.[10] Votes that are crucial to the election of district-winning candidates are excluded from the PR seat allocation, for this reason the method used by scorporo is referred to as a negative vote transfer system.[11] The system was used in Italy from 1993 to 2005
Majority jackpot systems
editElectoral systems with a majority bonus or jackpot have been referred to as "unconventional mixed systems"[12], which fall into the mixed-member majoritarian type, but they may be compensatory (jackpot) or non-compensatory (bonus). Employed by Armenia, Greece, and San Marino, as well as Italy from 2006 to 2013,[13] majority bonuses help the most popular party or alliance win a majority of the seats with a minority of the votes, similar in principle to plurality/majoritarian systems. However, PR is used to distribute the rest of seats (sometimes only among the opposition parties) and possibly within the governing alliance.
Number of votes
editDouble vote
editMost mixed systems allow voters to cast separate votes for different formulas of the electoral system, including:
- Parallel voting
- Most AMS/MMP systems
- AV+ (the first vote is ranked)
- Scorporo
List of countries using mixed systems
editThe table below lists the countries that use a mixed electoral system for the primary (lower) chamber of the legislature. Countries with coexistence-based hybrid systems have been excluded from the table, as have countries that mix two plurality/majoritarian systems. (See also the complete list of electoral systems by country.)
| Country | Body | Latest election
(year) |
Type of mixed system | Seats per constituency | Mixed system | Component electoral systems | Total seats | Number of votes | Typical results | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Armenia
|
Partially compensatory | Majority jackpot system | Party-list PR + party block voting (PBV) | semi-proportional | ||||||
 Djibouti
|
National Assembly | 2018 | 3-28 | 65 | semi-proportional | 80% of seats (rounded to the nearest integer) in each constituency are awarded to the party receiving the most votes (party block voting), remaining seats are allocated proportionally to other parties receiving over 10% (closed list, D'Hondt method) | ||||
 Greece
|
Hellenic Parliament | 2019 | Non-compensatory | Majority bonus | semi-proportional | |||||
 Hungary
|
National Assembly (Országgyűlés) | 2018 | Partially compensatory | 1 (local districts), 93 (national constituency) | Supermixed: parallel voting (superposition) and positive vote transfer (correction) | First-past-the-post (FPTP/SMP) + national list-PR | 199 | 2 | semi-proportional | |
 Japan
|
House of Representatives | 2021 | Non-compensatory | 1 (local districts) | Parallel voting (superposition) | First-past-the-post (FPTP/SMP) and List PR | 465 | 2 | semi-proportional | |
| House of Councillors | Non-compensatory | Parallel voting (superposition) | SNTV and List PR | 2 | semi-proportional | |||||
 Republic of Korea (South Korea)
|
National Assembly | 2024 | Partially compensatory | 1 (local districts), 46 additional seats (AMS) | Additional member system (AMS) | Party-list PR + First-past-the-post (FPTP/SMP) | 300 | 2 | (semi-)proportional | From 2019 to 2024: supermixed parallel voting (superposition) and additional member system (correction), with 253 single-member constituencies, 17 supplementary seats (a la parallel voting), and 30 compensatory seats (AMS)
Since 2024 only additional member system |
 Mexico
|
Chamber of Deputies | 2021 | Partially compensatory | 1 (local districts), 40 (multi-member districts) | Supermixed parallel voting (superposition) and additional member system (correction) | First-past-the-post (FPTP/SMP) + Party-list PR (Largest remainder:Hare quota) | 2 | semi-proportional | Since 1996, a party cannot get more seats overall than 8% above its result nationally (i.e., to win 50% of the legislative seats, a party must win at least 42% of the vote nationwide). There are three exceptions on this rule: first, a party can only lose PR-seats due to this rule (and no plurality-seats); second, a party can never get more than 300 seats overall (even if it has more than 52% of the vote nationally); and third, a party can exceed this 8% rule if it wins the seats in the single-member districts. | |
 San Marino
|
Grand and General Council | 2019 | Non-compensatory | Majority jackpot | proportional (first round) |
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ a b Massicotte & Blais (1999). "Mixed electoral systems: a conceptual and empirical survey". Electoral Studies. 18 (3): 341–366. doi:10.1016/S0261-3794(98)00063-8.
- ^ Massicotte, Louis (2004). In Search of Compensatory Mixed Electoral System for Québec (PDF) (Report).
- ^ a b ACE Project Electoral Knowledge Network. "Mixed Systems". Retrieved 20 October 2017.
- ^ Massicotte, Louis (2004). In Search of Compensatory Mixed Electoral System for Québec (PDF) (Report).
- ^ "Electoral System Design: The New International IDEA Handbook". International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. 2005.
- ^ Norris, Pippa (1997). "Choosing Electoral Systems: Proportional, Majoritarian and Mixed Systems" (PDF). Harvard University.
- ^ "Electoral Systems and the Delimitation of Constituencies". International Foundation for Electoral Systems. 2 Jul 2009.
- ^ a b Massicotte & Blais (1999). "Mixed electoral systems: a conceptual and empirical survey". Electoral Studies. 18 (3): 341–366. doi:10.1016/S0261-3794(98)00063-8.
- ^ Massicotte, Louis (April 2003). "To create or to copy? electoral systems in the German Länder". German Politics. 12 (1): 1–22. doi:10.1080/09644000412331307494. ISSN 0964-4008.
- ^ Bochsler, Daniel; Golder, Matt (2014). "Which mixed-member proportional electoral formula fits you best? Assessing the proportionality principle of positive vote transfer systems" (PDF). Representation. 50 (1): 113–127. doi:10.1080/00344893.2014.902222. S2CID 153691414.
- ^ Ferrara, F (2003). "Electoral coordination and the strategic desertion of strong parties in compensatory mixed systems with negative vote transfers". Electoral Studies.
- ^ Bedock, Camille; Sauger, Nicolas (2014). "Electoral Systems with a Majority Bonus as Unconventional Mixed Systems". Representation. 50 (1): 99–12. doi:10.1080/00344893.2014.902220. S2CID 154685383.
- ^ Marco Bertacche (March 2, 2018). "How Italy's New Electoral System Works". Bloomberg Politics.