The Escadrille Chérifienne (Cherifian Squadron) or Escadrille Américaine (American Squadron) was an American mercenary squadron fighting for the French colonial empire during the Rif War. It was attached to the Moroccan Royal Guard, or Garde Chérifienne. The squadron was led by Charles Sweeny.
Formation
editColonel Charles Sweeny, an American pilot who had served in World War I,[1] proposed organizing a squadron of American pilots to assist the French in Morocco, to French Prime Minister Paul Painlevé, who "warmly welcomed the Colonel’s request."[2]
Seeking "volunteers," Sweeny sent a telegram to a number of World War I veterans in the US in June 1925. By July, he had 17 volunteers, 12 of whom were pilots, including Paul Ayres Rockwell, had served France in World War I.[3][4] The American volunteers were inducted into the French Foreign Legion in July[dubious – discuss], and their squadron was named Escadrille Cherifienne, 19th Squadron of the Moroccan Aviation Regiment.[5] It was legally attached to the Sultan's Guard, and not to French forces.[6][7]
In a telegram to the French résident général in Morocco Hubert Lyautey, the Prime Minister and Minister of War of France Paul Painlevé said: "This American expression of solidarity seems particularly interesting at the moment and capable of bringing a share of American propaganda to our cause, strengthening American sentiment against the aggression of Abd el-Krim."[5]
Operations
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The unit was activated on August 7, 1925.[8] It operated seven Bréguet 14 light bombers. The Squadron was assisted by a 59-man French ground crew.[8]
In Morocco, the American volunteers of the Escadrille Cherifienne were based in Beni Malek.[9] The Escadrille bombed the Moroccan city of Chefchaouen on September 17, 1925.[1]
The Escadrille was cited at the order of the (French) Occupation Troops of Morocco on October 15, 1925.[8]
Polemics
editAfter learning about the mercenaries, the U.S. Department of State issued instructions to its consul in Morocco to warn the Americans that they would risk the revocation of their citizenship, imprisonment, and fines under the Neutrality Act of 1794 if they did not end their involvement in the war. While the initial public reception to the mercenaries had been mixed back home, their involvement in bombing campaigns caused widespread outrage. The Literary Digest headlined the news as "U.S. bombs and Rif babies". The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette said it would've been one thing if the mercenaries were fighting for the Riffians, but that there was "nothing gallant or chivalrous in the rain of bombs, dropped on defenseless villages." The Christian Century, a leading Protestant magazine, remarked, "These American soldiers of fortune have no pretexts other than the exaltation of the manhunt. This is a royal sport and the fact that these women and children who have had the misfortune to be born in the Rif villages as victims has no more meaning for them than the death of a rabbit during a hunt."[10]
The State Department repeated its threat to prosecute the pilots for violating American neutrality laws if they did not immediately cease their participation in the war, but the pilots rejected the warnings. Nevertheless, after only six weeks of operations, the French disbanded the squadron under diplomatic pressure by the United States. According to Marshal Philippe Pétain, the unit carried out 350 combat missions in six weeks and dropped more than 40 tons of ammunition. According to Lieutenant Colonel Charles Kerwood, the squadron had bombed villages and caused caused considerable civilian casualties. There was even a proven instance of the American squadron bombing a village which had previously surrendered.[11]
The French Left also saw Rifian commander Abd el-Krim as a Republican leader fighting for liberty.[6]
The French aviators in Morocco and the French new commander Philippe Pétain disapproved the use of foreign mercenaries.[6]
Under diplomatic pressure from the United States, the Squadron was disbanded on November 15, 1925.[8][7]
Members
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- Colonel Charles Michael Sweeny[12][13]
- Captain Paul Ayres Rockwell[12]
- Commander James Sussan/Susson, Canadian former commander[clarification needed] pilot in the Royal Air Force of the United Kingdom[12][13]
- Donald Mac Gibeny, former pilot of United States Air Force[12]
- Captain Samuel J. Mustain, former pilot of United States Air Force[12][14]
- Doctor James V Sparks, who enlisted as a medic[12][13]
- Captain George Butts[12][13]
- George Rehm[12]
- Lieutenant Charles W. Kerwood[13][12]
- Commander Grandville Pollock[13][12]
- Lieutenant-Colonel Austin G. Parker[13][12]
- Captain Reginald H. Weller[13][12]
- Captain Graham[12]
- Captain Lansing Colton Holden Jr.[12]
- Captain William G. Bullin[12]
- Lieutenant William S. Cousins[13]
Motivation
editOn the motivation of the rogue American volunteer pilots, Sweeny wrote, "In our view, France, in fighting Abdel Krim, is fighting the cause of the white man's civilization, and all who have formed this squadron know enough of the world to appreciate what the white man's civilization means."[15]
Most of the pilots were interested in an adventurous life and the historian William Dean refutes the importance of the white supremacist views of the pilots.[6]
References
edit- ^ a b "Why Americans Volunteered to Bomb a Moroccan Mountain Town in 1925". Code and Dagger. Retrieved 2019-07-14.
- ^ Roberts, Charley. Charles Sweeny, the man who inspired Hemingway. ISBN 1476669945. OCLC 1011663811.
- ^ Yabiladi.com. "History : When an American squadron violated US neutrality laws, bombing Chefchaouen". en.yabiladi.com. Retrieved 2019-07-14.
- ^ Roberts, Charley; Hess, Charles P. (2017-09-08). Charles Sweeny, the Man Who Inspired Hemingway. McFarland. ISBN 9781476669946.
- ^ a b Roberts, Charley; Hess, Charles P. (2017-09-08). Charles Sweeny, the Man Who Inspired Hemingway. McFarland. p. 153. ISBN 9781476669946.
- ^ a b c d Dean, William (2007-03-15). "Des Américains dans la guerre du Rif". Revue historique des armées (in French) (246): 46–55. ISSN 0035-3299.
- ^ a b Azzou, El-Mostafa (2003). "L'escadrille Lafayette : des aviateurs américains dans la guerre du Rif: (1921-1926)". Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains (in French). 209 (1): 57. doi:10.3917/gmcc.209.0057. ISSN 0984-2292.
- ^ a b c d Pesquies, Simone (1990). "L'aéronautique militaire française dans la guerre du Rif". Revue du Nord. 72 (285): 317–367. doi:10.3406/rnord.1990.4530.
- ^ "Excelsior : journal illustré quotidien : informations, littérature, sciences, arts, sports, théâtre, élégances". Gallica. 1925-10-03. Retrieved 2019-07-15.
- ^ Roberts, Charley; Hess, Charles P. (2017-10-20). Charles Sweeny, the Man Who Inspired Hemingway. McFarland. pp. 150–156. ISBN 978-1-4766-6994-6.
- ^ Dean, William (2007-03-15). "Des Américains dans la guerre du Rif". Revue historique des armées (in French) (246): 46–55. ISSN 0035-3299.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o texte, Parti social français Auteur du (1925-08-06). "Le Petit journal". Gallica. Retrieved 2019-07-19.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i texte, Association des dames françaises Auteur du (January 1926). "Bulletin de l'Association des dames françaises / Croix-rouge française". Gallica. Retrieved 2019-07-19.
- ^ Baltimore Sun, U.S. Flyers in Riff Termed Civilian Slayers in Report, 17 Oct 1925, p. 1, 10
- ^ Deacon, Richard (1972). One Man's Wars: The Story of Charles Sweeny, Soldier of Fortune. Barker. ISBN 9780213994327.