Wikipedia

Demographics of Sabah

(Redirected from Ethnic groups in Sabah)

Historical population
YearPop.±%
1970 653,604—    
1980 955,712+46.2%
1991 1,734,685+81.5%
2000 2,468,246+42.3%
2010 3,117,405+26.3%
2020 3,418,785+9.7%
Note: Include Labuan in 1970.
Source: Malaysian Population Statistics[1]

Sabah is the third most populous state in Malaysia, with a population of 3,418,785 according to the 2020 Malaysian census. It also has the highest non-citizen population, at 810,443.[2] Although Malaysia is one of the least densely populated countries in Asia, Sabah is particularly sparsely populated. Most of the population is concentrated along coastal areas, with towns and urban centres seeing the most population growth.

The population of Sabah in 1970 was 653,604,[3] with both the state and its neighbour Sarawak having about the same number of foreign nationals.[4] In 1980, the state experienced a sharp rise in population with the arrival of almost a million refugees fleeing the Moro conflict in the neighbouring southern Philippines.[3][5] Around the same time, large numbers of legal workers from both Indonesia and the Philippines also arrived in Sabah, drawn by the economic boom in its primary sector.[6][7] Malayising policies enacted under Mustapha Harun further lowered Sabah's Christian Kadazan-Dusun demographic dominance other than these factors. In 1992, Sabah's population increased to over 1,734,685,[3] then to 2,468,246 in 2000.[8] By 2010, this grew to 3,117,405.[9][10] Sabah has 900,000 registered migrant workers in agriculture, plantations, construction, services, and domestic work.[11] While the total number of illegal immigrants (including refugees) is predicted to be more than one million,[note 1] most of these people are believed to have been categorised as "other bumiputera" in national statistics.[14][15] Sabah has also seen an increase in the number of expatriates, mostly from China, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, Australia, and Europe.[16] In the near term, the population is expected to grow from increasing interracial marriages and migration.

Ethnic groups of Sabah in their respective traditional dress

People from Sabah are called Sabahans and generally identify themselves as such.[17] Sabah is home to an estimated 42 ethnic groups, and over 200 distinct sub-ethnic groups each with their own language, culture, and spiritual beliefs.[18] The coastal and lowland areas are inhabited mostly by the Bajau, Bruneian Malay, Bugis, Illanun, Kedayan, and Suluk/Tausūg. These groups traditionally worked as fishermen and farmers.[19] The highland areas in the interior are inhabited mostly by the Kadazan-Dusun, Murut, and Lun Bawang (or Lun Dayeh) and their sub-groups. These groups traditionally worked as farmers and hunters.[20] The term bumiputera (lit. 'son of the soil') is used in Malaysia to refer to those of Malay and indigenous descent. This demographic generally enjoys special privileges in education, employment, finance, and politics.[21] Within the bumiputera demographic, the term Orang Asal refers to just those of indigenous descent, excluding the Malays.[22]

The three largest indigenous groups in Sabah are the Kadazan-Dusun, Bajau, and Murut. These are followed by the Bruneian Malays, Suluk, and others.[23] Citizens of Chinese descent make up the majority of the non-Bumiputera population.[24]

Ethnic groups

edit

Kadazan-Dusun

edit
Main article: Kadazan-Dusun
 
Kadazan-Dusun woman in her traditional dress

The Kadazan-Dusun is the largest indigenous group in Sabah, comprising the blending of the Kadazan and Dusun peoples and their 40 sub-groups.[25][23][26] Each sub-group has a different (though largely mutually intelligible) language and tradition. Although the term Kadazan-Dusun is primarily used to collectively refer to the two groups as a whole, it also sometimes includes other groups like the Murut, Orang Sungai, Rungus, Tidong, and Lun Bawang/Lun Dayeh peoples.[27] These other ethnic groups also identify as "other bumiputera".

Today, the Kadazan reside mainly in urban areas, whereas the Dusun prefer the hills and upland valleys.[25] The Kadazan are mostly settled in the areas around Penampang, Papar, Ranau, Tambunan, and Keningau, whereas the Dusun are mostly concentrated in the areas of Tuaran, Ranau, and Tambunan.[28] The Kadazan-Dusun were once known for their headhunting practices as well for their skills as farmers, hunters, and river fisherfolk.[25][29]

The Kadazan once lived in longhouses,[30] while the Dusun lived in single traditional houses (although some also lived in longhouses). As both peoples are traditionally rice farmers, they celebrate an annual harvest festival known as the Kaamatan.[31][32] The Kadazan-Dusun community has a belief that their ancestors come from the Nunuk Ragang (a red banyan tree). Located not far from the tree are the two rivers Liwagu and Gelibang, which became the route through which their community spread throughout the interior of Sabah.[33]

Bajau

edit
Main article: Bajau people
 
West Coast Bajau horsemen in Kota Belud, with a background of Mount Kinabalu behind

The second largest indigenous group of Sabah is the Bajau. The Bajaus in Sabah are generally divided into two main groups: the West Coast and East Coast.[28] The West Coast Bajau generally lived in land and were known for their traditional horse culture.[34] They mostly settled the area from Kota Belud, Kota Kinabalu, Tuaran, and Papar. The East Coast Bajau mostly spend their lives in the sea and settled around the area of Semporna, Lahad Datu, and Kunak;[34][35][36] they also hold their annual regatta lepa festival.

 
East Coast Bajau girls with their traditional dress. (Including in this image are West Coast Bajau girls on the right)

Once known as seafarers, the West Coast Bajau started to learn farming and cattle rearing since their migration from the Philippine archipelago a long time ago.[when?][28][23] Their skills in horsemanship are well known locally, and they engage in horsemanship activities on their festive occasions, during which riders dress in colourful traditional costumes.[34] On the other hand, the East Coast Bajau still live as they traditionally have, with fishing having become their main source of income.[34] Most lived in stilt water villages, and some spend most of their lives in their boat. The East Coast Bajau are also known as good divers and can spend more than five minutes in the waters without using an oxygen tank.[37]

Murut

edit
Main article: Murut people
 
Muruts in their traditional dress

The Muruts are the third largest indigenous group of Sabah, settling the areas around Keningau, Tenom, Nabawan, Pensiangan, and along the river areas of Sapulut, Padas, and Kinabatangan.[28] Like the Kadazan-Dusun, they were once known for their headhunting practice and now are farmers and hunters.[23] Traditionally, the Muruts lived in longhouses; today, Muruts in north Sabah still live in longhouses, but most others have adopted modern dwellings.[38] The Muruts have a great knowledge of botanical healers, with each of their communities having its own herbalist who can attend to illnesses such as diarrhoea, diabetes, and high blood pressure.[28] Since the abolishment of headhunting by the British, many Muruts served as police and soldiers for the British. This has been maintained until today, with many Muruts serving in the Malaysian Armed Forces. Similar to the Kadazan-Dusun, the Muruts also celebrate a harvest festival called Kalimaran.[39]

Melayu, Melayu Brunei, and Kedayan

edit
Main article: Bruneian Malay people
 
Brunei Malays in their traditional dress of Baju Melayu during a parade in Sabah

The traditional Malays in Sabah are the Bruneian Malays, who mostly inhabit the area in the southwest coast. They mostly settled in Beaufort, Sipitang, Kuala Penyu, and Papar. Their migration to northern Borneo was noticeable during the rule of the Sultanate of Brunei in the 1400s.[40] However, although the Bruneians are Malays, their culture and language slightly differ from the majority of Peninsular Malays.[41]

The Cocos Malays and Kedayan are also included in this group, together with the recent Malays who migrated from Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak,[23] as Malays are defined by the Malaysian Constitution as those who are Muslim, speak Malay, and conform to Malay customs.[23]

Tausug / Suluk

edit
Main article: Suluk people

The Suluks settled around the east coast of Sabah, mainly in Sandakan, Semporna, and Lahad Datu. Together with the Bajaus and Illanuns, their migration from the Sulu Archipelago began during the rule of the Sultanate of Sulu.[42][43][44][45] Many are believed to have fled the slave trade in the Sulu Archipelago[46] and Spanish oppression;[47] some are even descendants of a Sulu princess (Dayang-Dayang) who fled from the sultan of Sulu when he tried to make the princess his wife.[48] The indigenous Suluks are different from the recently arrived Tausug immigrants from the Philippines as they have embraced the multiculturalism in northern Borneo. Due to the purported racism and discrimination faced by indigenous Suluks—triggered mostly by illegal immigration, as well as militants from Sulu who are mostly Tausugs from the Philippines—indigenous Suluks prefer to be distinguished and differentiated from the Tausugs in the Philippines.[49]

Chinese

edit
Main article: Malaysian Chinese
 
A happy Chinese family in Sabah

Chinese form the largest non-indigenous group in Sabah, many of whom arrived to northern Borneo before the British, as shown in both Brunei and Sulu sultanates records[50] and British records.[51] The earliest documentation of Chinese settlement in Sabah dates back to the 7th century, on the banks of the Kinabatangan River.[28] However, the links between northern Borneo and China could be much longer, since the Han dynasty.[52]

The migration of Chinese to northern Borneo saw a significant increase following the establishment of the North Borneo Chartered Company in 1881. At the time, the British considered the native populations as being too small in number to boost the North Borneo economy.[52] Until this day, the Chinese are very important to the state economy, engaging in business-related activities.[53]

The Chinese in Sabah can be divided into three main groups: Hakka, Cantonese, and Hokkien. The Hakka form the majority of Chinese in Sabah,[54] followed by the Cantonese and Hokkien.[25] There is also a community of northern Chinese in the state, most of whom identify as Tianjin ren (people from Tianjin).[55] All the Chinese community are united under the Sabah United Chinese Chambers of Commerce (SUCC), an organisation that promotes national unity and continuous contribution towards the state economy.[56]

Sino-Native

edit
Main article: Sino-Native

The Sino-Native community in Sabah, often referred to as Sino, is a cultural group that emerged from intermarriages between the Chinese community and indigenous peoples such as the Kadazan-Dusun, Murut and others. These intermarriages date back to the mid-18th century and have resulted in distinct sub-groups like Sino-Kadazan, Sino-Dusun and Sino-Murut, each reflecting a fusion of Chinese and local traditions. This blending of cultures is evident in various aspects of their lives, including language, cuisine, customs, and religious practices.[57]

Today, the Sino-Native community maintains a vibrant cultural identity that celebrates its dual heritage. Major festivals such as Chinese New Year and the Kaamatan Festival are observed with a unique blend of customs, combining traditional Chinese elements with indigenous practices. For instance, Sino households may include indigenous delicacies like Linopot and sambal Tuhau in their traditional Chinese New Year menus.[58] This harmonious integration of diverse cultural influences highlights the rich and diverse legacy of the Sino-Native community, contributing significantly to the multicultural tapestry of Sabah's society.

Other bumiputeras

edit
 
Lun Bawang in Sabah playing their musical instruments, kulintangan and agung

Sabah also has other minority indigenous ethnic groups, other than the four largest indigenous groups (Kadazandusun, Bajau, Melayu Brunei, and Murut). These include the Rungus, Orang Sungei, Iranun, Bonggi, Kwijau, Paitan, Lun Bawang, Lundayeh, Kedayan, Iban, Binadan, Bisaya, Kokos, Rumanau, Lotud, Minokok, Tidung, Kagayan, Tatana, Tagaas, Ubian, Kimaragang, Bajau Laut, Ida'an, Inokang, and Sonsogon.[59][60]

Still, the ethnic identification is fluid—some individuals might identify as belonging to one of the major ethnic groups in Sabah (such as the Rungus and Orang Sungei being sub-ethnics of Kadazan-Dusun, or the Kedayan and Kokos being sub-ethnics of Malay), while others insist on identifying as a separate ethnic group.

The categorisation under the term "other bumiputeras" for official usage has brought some controversy. For example, there was speculation that the term was misused to include counting Filipino and Indonesian immigrants who were naturalised either through some connivance elements in state bureaucracy or fraudulent documents.[61]

Distribution by ethnicities

edit
Population of Sabah by ethnic group
Ethnicity 1991 2000 2010 2020

Population

(1991 census)[62]

Percentage

Population

(2000 census)[63]

Percentage

Population

(2010 census)[64]

Percentage

Population

(2020 census)[2]

Percentage
Kadazan-Dusun 321,834 18.6% 458,768 18.6% 555,647 17.8% 660,777 19.3%
Bajau 203,457 11.7% 330,996 13.4% 426,672 13.7% 565,499 16.5%
Malay 106,740 6.2% 294,833 11.9% 178,029 5.7% 307,494 9.0%
Murut 50,255 2.9% 80,872 3.3% 100,631 3.2% 106,484 3.1%
Other bumiputeras 255,555 14.7% 374,388 15.2% 640,964 20.6% 673,233 19.7%
Subtotal
(bumiputera)		 937,841 54.1% 1,539,857 62.4% 1,911,943 61.3% 2,313,471 67.7%
Chinese 200,056 11.5% 254,528 10.3% 284,049 9.1% 248,920 7.3%
Indian — — — — 7,171 0.2% 5,962 0.2%
Others 171,613 9.9% 120,894 4.9% 47,052 1.5% 39,989 1.2%
Subtotal
(Malaysian citizens)		 1,309,510 75.5% 1,915,279 77.6% 2,250,215 72.2% 2,608,342 76.3%
Non-Malaysian citizens 425,175 24.5% 552,967 22.4% 867,190 27.8% 810,443 23.7%
Total 1,734,685 100% 2,468,246 100% 3,117,405 100% 3,418,785 100%
  • Distribution of ethnic groups in Sabah by state constituencies (2020 census)[65]
  •  
    Malay
  •  
    Kadazan-Dusun
  •  
    Bajau
  •  
    Murut
  •  
    Chinese
  •  
    Non-Malaysian, including illegal immigrants and refugees

Religion

edit
Main articles: Malaysian folk religion, Islam in Malaysia, Christianity in Malaysia, Buddhism in Malaysia, Sikhism in Malaysia, and Hinduism in Malaysia
Religion in Sabah (2020)[66]
Religion Percent
Islam
 
 69.6%
Christianity
 
 24.7%
Buddhism
 
 5.1%
Unknown
 
 0.1%
No religion
 
 0.1%
Others
 
 0.1%
Hinduism
 
 0.1%

Prior to the arrival of Islam and Christianity, the indigenous peoples of North Borneo mainly practised animism and paganism.[67][68] Islam arrived in the 10th century on the west coast of Borneo, following the conversion of the first ruler of Brunei into Islam.[69] In addition, Islamic teachings spread from Sulu and Sulawesi into the coastal areas of eastern Borneo.[69] The first Christian missionary in northern Borneo was a Spanish mariner and priest, Rev. Msgr. Carlos Cuarteroni; although at the time the British had already established their presence in the island of Labuan.[70] Meanwhile, Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religions as well the Indian religions of Hinduism and Sikhism arrived as a result of the migration of Chinese and Indians to northern Borneo.[71][72]

Following the amendments of the 1973 Sabah constitution by Chief Minister Mustapha Harun, Islam was declared the state religion of Sabah.[73] However, the amendments are considered controversial, as they contradict the 20-point agreement that was agreed upon prior to the formation of Malaysia, which stated that there would be no state religion for North Borneo.[74][75] It is believed that the amendments were made while ignoring the indigenous peoples.[74][75] In 1960, the population of Muslims in Sabah was only 37.9%, with animists (33.3%), Christians (16.6%), and other religions (12.2%) constituting the remainder.[74] However, following Mustapha Harun coming to power, the Muslim population suddenly began to increase rapidly.[76] By 2010, the percentage of Muslims had increased to 65.4%, while Christians grew to 26.6% and Buddhists to 6.1%.[77]

Population and Housing Censuses figures show the approximate proportions of these religions.[66] The significant increase in the Muslim population between 1980 and 2010 (almost half a million people for every 10 years) highlights the height of Project IC, an alleged demographic engineering program in Sabah.

Year Islam Buddhism Christianity Hinduism Other religions No religion or
no information
1921* 31.8%
(81,886) 		— 2.7%
(6,980) 		— 65.5%
(168,938) 		—
1931* 32.1%
(86,713) 		— 3.9%
(10,454) 		— 64.0%
(173,056) 		—
1951* 34.5%
(115,126) 		— 16.6%
(29,052) 		— 56.8%
(189,923) 		—
1960* 37.9%
(172,324) 		— 16.6%
(75,247) 		— 45.5%
(206,850) 		—
1970 40.1%
(260,945) 		9.7%
(63,313) 		24.2%
(157,422) 		0% 14.5%
(94,493) 		11.5%
(75,131)
1980 51.3%
(487,627) 		8.3%
(78,868) 		27.2%
(258,606) 		0.3%
(2,896) 		6.8%
(65,078) 		6.0%
(57,481)
1991 62.2%
(1,062,214) 		7.4%
(126,206) 		27.6%
(470,371) 		0.2%
(3,231) 		0.2%
(2,570) 		2.5%
(42,106)
2000 63.4%
(1,564,734) 		6.5%
(161,244) 		28.0%
(690,455) 		0.1%
(2,715) 		0.7%
(17,932) 		1.3%
(31,166)
2010 65.4%
(2,037,547) 		6.0%
(187,342) 		26.7%
(831,451) 		0.1%
(2,935) 		0.2%
(5,816) 		1.7%
(52,315)
2020 69.6%
(2,379,216) 		5.1%
(173,241) 		24.7%
(843,734) 		0.1%
(4,948) 		0.1%
(3,772) 		0.4%
(13,874)
*1921-1960 census is from North Borneo[78][79]

Mass conversion and issues with freedom of religion

edit
See also: Christian mission, Islamic missionary activity, and Freedom of religion in Malaysia

Starting in the colonial period, various Christian groups from the West actively evangelised the indigenous people of North Borneo as part of an effort to improve the living standards of the natives and eradicate tribal wars, headhunting, and excessive alcohol consumption. However, after colonial independence—and especially during the helm of Sabah's third chief minister, Mustapha Harun—Christian groups were involved in a dispute with Mustapha over alleged discrimination, bias, and unfair treatment towards them.[80]

Under Mustapha's political party, USNO, large-scale Islamisation was carried out by the United Sabah Islamic Association (USIA).[81] The organisation expelled a number of Christian missionary workers, converted elite politicians, and carried out mass conversion of animist villagers and some older Chinese generations in exchange for their citizenship, office positions, or cash rewards.[82] This was followed by an influx of Muslim migrants—Filipino refugees from Mindanao and Indonesian immigrants from Sulawesi—who were harboured to increase the local Muslim populations.[77][83][84] These immigrants were eventually integrated into the community and naturalised as Sabahan and Malaysian via an alleged program called Project IC.

After the fall of USNO, BERJAYA adopted "multi-racial principles" which won the vote from non-Muslims. However, the party began to adopt an Islamic vision with the establishment of Majlis Ugama Islam Sabah (MUIS).[82] The conversion of indigenous villagers became rampant at the time. This interference in indigenous faith and rituals led to dwindling support from non-Muslims, and thus to the fall of BERJAYA.[82] Then, when the Sabah administration was taken over by a non-Muslim party, PBS, many false warnings regarding the threat to Islam were spread amongst the people in order to disrupt harmony and re-establish the position of the Muslim-dominated parties. Peninsular Malaysia politicians were brought in to strategise the downfall of PBS by any means (including Project IC) in the pretense of protecting Islam.

Moreover, since the controversial amendments of the 1973 constitution, Sabah faced more cases of mass religious conversion. This led to highly controversial issues, such as when Christian or pagan indigenous natives were instead identified as Muslim during their applications for identity cards.[85] This confusion was partly due to federal authorities in Peninsular Malaysia assuming that the usage of "bin" and "binti" in the birth certificates of indigenous non-Muslim Sabahans indicated their profession to Islam.[85][86] However, the issue originated from reckless officers who manipulated the ignorance of indigenous natives when registering the births of their newborn babies, by adding "bin" or "binti" into the babies' names. Additionally, there are frequent reports of villagers who were tricked into conversion by certain non-governmental organisations from the Peninsular Malaysia,[87] as well the conversion of students in schools by teachers from the Peninsular without their parents' knowledge and consent.[88]

While any non-Muslims in the state who want to convert to Islam can be easily accepted by the state law, any Muslims who wish to leave their religion will be detained in the state Islamic Rehabilitation Centre until they repent or are jailed for up to 36 months (3 years) where they already breaking of the first rule of Keningau Oath Stone, which is freedom of religion[89][90] A bid for the establishment of Sabah's first Christian radio also went unheeded by the federal government communication ministry until it was brought up to court.[91][92] In addition, religious zealotry and intolerance from certain Muslim hardcore groups in Peninsular Malaysia has started to affect the cultural and religious diversity in Sabah.[93] However, the federal government has denied connection with the controversial conversions and said that it is not the policy of the government to force someone to change their religion.[94] Prior to this, there were frequent calls to the government to restore the freedom of religion in the state and prevent religious tensions from damaging peace and harmony.[95]

 
Religion comparison of North Borneo (1960) and Sabah (2010) after undergoing controversial large-scale mass conversions.[74][77]

Languages

edit
Main article: Sabahan languages
 
Some examples of Sabahan language slang words accompanied by their English translations.

The indigenous languages of Sabah can be divided into four language families: Dusunic, Murutic, Paitanic, and Sama–Bajau. Studies suggest that the only truly Bornean languages spoken in Sabah are those belonging to the Dusunic, Murutic, and Paitanic language families,[96] while the Sama–Bajau languages originate from the southern Philippines.[97]

Dusunic is the largest of the four families. It comprises the Kadazan Dusun language, which has dialects spread throughout the districts of Papar, Penampang, Kota Kinabalu, Tuaran, Ranau, Tambunan, and Keningau.[97] It is followed by the Murutic languages of southern Sabah, which are spoken mainly in Keningau, Tenom, Nabawan, and Pensiangan. The Paitanic languages are spoken in the areas along the east coast rivers of Paitan, Kinabatangan, and Segama.[97] The Sama–Bajau are concentrated along parts of the West and East Coasts.[98]

Malay is taught as the main language for conversation across different ethnicities in the state, although Sabahan creole is different from Sarawak Malay and Peninsular Malay.[99] Sabah has its own slang in Malay that originates from indigenous words, Brunei Malay, Bajau, Suluk, Dusun, and Indonesian.[100]

The large Chinese minority in Sabah are mostly of the Hakka subgroup. As such, the Hakka dialect is the most commonly spoken Chinese dialect in the state. There are also significant minorities speaking other dialects, particular Cantonese and Hokkien. Additionally, as Chinese schools in Malaysia use Mandarin as the language of instruction, many Chinese Sabahans are also proficient in Mandarin, albeit a "Malaysianised" form of it.[101] Zamboangueño, a Spanish-based creole language and dialect of Chavacano, spread into one village of Sabah in Semporna prior to the migration of people from the southern Philippines.[102]

 
The distribution of language families of Sabah shown by colours:
(click image to enlarge)
  North Bornean
  Sama–Bajaw
  Malayic
  Philippine
  Areas with multiple languages

In 1971, the state government of Sabah under Mustapha Harun submitted an enactment recognising Malaysian Malay as the state's official language.[103] Following the amendments of 1973 constitution, the use of English was restricted to official purposes with the extension of the 1967 Malaysian National Language Act.[104] As a result of the domination of Malay in the state, English proficiency among younger Sabahan generations has been gradually decreasing.[101]

The largest indigenous language, Kadazan Dusun, has become an endangered language, as its study has not been made compulsory in state schools.[20][105]

Due to the tight Malay culture and language policies over national schools, many Sabahan bumiputera parents have preferred to send their children to Chinese schools. A 2010 survey revealed there were around 12,138 Sabahan bumiputera students enrolled in Chinese national type primary schools and preschools; thus, Sabah had the second-highest number of bumiputera pupils enrolment in Chinese schools (after Sarawak).[106] In addition to the perception among non-Chinese parents that Chinese schools provided a better-quality education and were more disciplined, the rise of China as a global economic power incentivised learning Chinese languages.[107]

Since 2014, the British Council have actively given assistance to teach English in primary schools; this was followed by the US Fulbright Program in 2015 for teaching English in secondary schools.[108][109] The Kadazan Dusun language also started to be promoted at the same time, with language teachers completing training in 2018 and starting to teach in 2019.[110][needs update] Since 2016, the Sabah Education Department has set Tuesday as "English Day" for schools, to increase English proficiency in the state and encourage younger generations to converse more in English.[111]

Following the 2018 general election, the new Sabah government removed restrictions on the usage of English in the state, adding that even if the Education Ministry decrees it unlawful for English be used in Sabah, the government will not allow the restriction to be imposed in the state. This is because restrictions on English would damage younger generations, especially when they need to work in private firms or organisations that require English proficiency. The new state government also stated that they will look into the matters if there is a need to change the state law.[112]

Immigration to Sabah

edit
See also: Refugees of the Philippines and Illegal immigrants in Malaysia
 
Filipino Market in Kota Kinabalu. Overseas Filipinos top the list of migrants in Sabah.
Immigration to Sabah[note 2]
Origin Estimation (+)
  Philippines 1,000,000[note 3]
  Indonesia 500,000[114]
  China /
  Taiwan[115]		 200,000[9][116]
  Brunei 70,000[40]
  India 7,000[9][117]
  South Korea 2,000[118]
  Pakistan 1,000
  Japan 300[119]
  Thailand 200[120]
  East Timor 100[121]

The connection and movement of people between Sabah, Sarawak, Brunei, the southern Philippines, and the Indonesian province of Kalimantan have existed for centuries.[122][123] Trade within the area dates back as early as the 9th century.[122] In modern times, prior to laws and lawlessness issues created by recent immigrants, there was an emphasis to control and monitor illegal movements.

The first modern wave of migration occurred in the late 16th century, when pressure from Spanish colonists in the southern Philippines led to increased immigration to Sadah of Philippine ethnic groups such as Suluks and Bajaus.[122] In the 1970s, thousands of Filipino refugees, mostly the Moros, began arriving due to conflict and political uncertainty in Mindanao.[122]

The Filipino refugees in Sabah were welcomed by certain state politicians (mostly from USNO, BERJAYA, and the dominant federal government political party of UMNO) to increase the racial balance in favour to the Malays. In this way, the state autonomy in immigration was manipulated for political gains.[122][123] In contrast, the Vietnamese refugees in Peninsular Malaysia were repatriated to maintain the racial balance for the Malays.[124] Some Vietnamese boat refugees reached Sabah as part of the Indochina refugee crisis, although most were sent to Western countries, as the Malaysian leader at the time (Mahathir Mohamad) only wanted to receive Muslim refugees.[125] Since 2000, around 20,000 Muslim foreigners from the Philippines and Indonesia have married local Sabahans, in addition to a number of foreign men from Afghanistan, Algeria, and Bangladesh marrying local Sabahan women, based on figures released by the Sabah Islamic Religious Affairs Department (JHEAINS).[126]

 
Chinese-owned shops on Gaya Street, Jesselton in 1930

Sabah has a significant Chinese minority.[25][127] Chinese immigrants first came to Sabah from southern China in the late 19th century, fleeing famine and overpopulation. They were enticed to Sabah by the promises of British colonists, who invited them to help clear the forests and farm the land in return for various benefits.[52] While early Chinese immigrants were primarily involved in agriculture, most eventually became involved in business, operating sundry shops, coffee shops, and so on. To this day, Chinese Sabahans play a pivotal role in the state's commercial scene.[53] Most Chinese Sabahans are of Hakka descent, but there are significant numbers of Chinese Sabahans from other dialect groups, especially the Cantonese and Hokkien subgroups. The largest Chinese populations in Sabah are in the three major cities of Kota Kinabalu, Sandakan, and Tawau. Smaller rural communities exist, particularly in the districts of Kudat, Keningau, Tenom, and Beaufort.[52]

Unlike in Peninsular Malaysia, the South Asian population in Sabah is small. It consists mainly of Indians and Pakistanis, some of whom are descended from immigrants who served in the British colonial military.[71][72] Sabah is also home to a large number of foreign immigrants from Indonesia and the Philippines. The Indonesian community is composed mostly of Buginese, Florenese, Torajans, and Timorese people who have come to Sabah to work as labourers, in oil palm plantations or as domestic workers.[121][128] The Filipino community can broadly be divided into two: descendants of mostly Christian immigrants who worked as professionals during the colonial era,[129] and the mostly-Muslim immigrants from the southern Philippines who came during the USNO era.[122][123] In recent years, the number of expatriates in the state has increased. They come mostly from China, Taiwan, South Korea, Japan, Australia, and various countries in Europe, particularly the United Kingdom.[16]

Demographic issues

edit
Main articles: Project IC and Royal Commission of Inquiry on illegal immigrants in Sabah

There are many reports stating that following the influx of refugees and foreigners from the Muslim areas of Mindanao in the Philippines and Sulawesi in Indonesia, a "secretive taskforce" was established in the 1970s during Mustapha Harun's term as Chief Minister to register them as citizens.[130][131] Then, from 1988 to 1990, the taskforce registered not only Muslim refugees and migrants but also Muslims from Peninsular Malaysia to topple the majority Christian state government under PBS.[76][132]

A source from one of the former Sabah Chief Ministers estimated the total of illegal immigrants in the state to be around 400,000–500,000, while Sabah's opposition parties together with the Filipino community leaders indicated that the numbers had surpassed one million.[12] This complicated estimate was a result of frequent "controversial regularisation", with illegal immigrants and refugees changing their status to "legal citizen". Furthermore, most of those who were deported could return within weeks or a few months.[12] Most of the immigration issues were perceived by the locals as politically motivated to systematically change the demography of the state.

As a case example, in 2016, a local woman living in Sabah and born to a Sabahan indigenous family was denied citizenship by the state government, whereas recently arrived immigrants had acquired their Malaysian identity card (MyKad) in just a short time despite not having any relationships with Malaysian citizens:[133]

I was born at home at Kg Enubai (Tenom District) in 1960, so my birth was not registered then. When I turned 12, my mum brought me to the JPN Office to apply for a blue IC. It was a hassling experience as the authorities wanted proof of my local birth. We managed to find the village midwife who delivered me. But I was still given a red IC. I speak Malaysian language, Murut, Dusun, Hakka, Cantonese and Mandarin. I grew up with Murut and Dusun kids. When I talk to people in the Peninsula, they know straightaway that I am from Sabah. Even the police once said to me, 'Aunty, dari Sabahkah?' (Aunty, from Sabah?). But the Indonesian women who live in my area and can only speak Indonesian Malay have got MyKad. Isn't this strange? The Indonesian women said: 'Kami datang lima tahun, sudah dapat IC', (We have been here five years already, we have already got IC).[133]

Another indigenous woman faced difficulties in sending her child to school when the child was listed as a Muslim without the mother's consent on his recently received birth certificate from the National Registration Department (NRD). The mother refused to accept the document, as the child was born Christian. Repeated occurrence of such cases has caused the department to be accused of practising religiously motivated "cleansing" of the state to systematically Islamize its people.[134]

Added to this was the exposure of corruption within the Malaysian authorities by an Indonesian investigative television program in late 2016. The program revealed that thousands of Indonesian migrants were crossing easily through the border in Tawau Division every day,[135] with many of the illegal immigrants also using fake identity cards to receive the "Bantuan Rakyat 1Malaysia" (a type of Malaysian government aid to local low-income Malaysians in the form of money).[136]

By 2016, these issues had created some ethnic tension among Sabahans as well affecting the security and stability of the state. Due to this, the federal government agreed to set up a royal commission to investigate the problems.[137] Among the proposals by Sabahan parties during the commission was one to recall all identity cards (ICs) issued in the state and issue new ICs only for eligible Sabahan citizens; this would also ensure the integrity of the MyKad system.[138][139] The federal government was also urged to speed up the process of registering all stateless indigenous natives, in light of the fact that indigenous people are supposedly regarded as deserving a special position in their own homeland.[140] Following the coverage of the issue, the Chief Minister instructed NRD to rectify the matters immediately.[141]

 
Demographic composition of North Borneo in 1960 and Sabah in 2010[12][9]

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^ As Malaysia is not a signatory of the 1951 UN Refugee Convention, this total is predicted to be more than one million. One possible explanation for this high figure is the controversial naturalisation of illegal immigrants for political reasons.[12] Malaysia maintains that all new arrivals are illegal immigrants rather than refugees.[13]
  2. ^ Including those who became citizens through naturalisation, intermarriage with local natives, and non-natives who are Malaysian citizens due to the recent migrations.[113]
  3. ^ Including refugees.[12]

References

edit
  1. ^ "Workbook: 1202". Tableau.dosm.gov.my. 4 April 2021. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  2. ^ a b "ownCloud::DOSM". Cloud.stats.gov.my. Archived from the original on 18 April 2022. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  3. ^ a b c Jeffrey R. Vincent; Rozali Mohamed Ali (2005). Managing Natural Wealth: Environment and Development in Malaysia. Resources for the Future. pp. 6–. ISBN 978-1-933115-20-7.
  4. ^ Anthony Milner; Abdul Rahman Embong; Tham Siew Yean (28 February 2014). Transforming Malaysia: Dominant and Competing Paradigms. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 147–. ISBN 978-981-4517-91-1.
  5. ^ Azizah Kassim (2009). "Filipino Refugees in Sabah: State Responses, Public Stereotypes and the Dilemma Over Their Future" (PDF). Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University. CiNii. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  6. ^ Helen E. S. Nesadurai (2013). "Malaysia's Conflict with the Philippines and Indonesia over Labour Migration: Economic Security, Interdependence and Conflict Trajectories". The Pacific Review. 26. Academia.edu: 89–113. doi:10.1080/09512748.2013.755360. S2CID 154260572. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  7. ^ OECD (1 February 2002). International Migration in Asia Trends and Policies: Trends and Policies. OECD Publishing. pp. 129–. ISBN 978-92-64-18867-9.
  8. ^ Saw Swee-Hock; K. Kesavapany (2006). Malaysia: Recent Trends and Challenges. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 4–. ISBN 978-981-230-336-3.
  9. ^ a b c d "Total population by ethnic group, administrative district and state, Malaysia" (PDF). Department of Statistics, Malaysia. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 25 February 2016.
  10. ^ "'Unnatural' population growth in Sabah over the years". Daily Express. 6 December 2014. Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  11. ^ "Hike on foreign workers' levy irrational: FSI". New Sabah Times. 4 February 2016. Archived from the original on 2 June 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2016.
  12. ^ a b c d e Kamal Sadiq (2 December 2008). Paper Citizens: How Illegal Immigrants Acquire Citizenship in Developing Countries. Oxford University Press. pp. 49–178. ISBN 978-0-19-970780-5.
  13. ^ Franklin Ng (1998). The History and Immigration of Asian Americans. Taylor & Francis. pp. 177–. ISBN 978-0-8153-2690-8.
  14. ^ "Population by States and Ethnic Group". Department of Information, Ministry of Communications and Multimedia, Malaysia. 2015. Archived from the original on 12 February 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2015.
  15. ^ "Abnormal hike in 'Bumi Lain' category". Daily Express. 16 January 2015. Archived from the original on 2 June 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2016.
  16. ^ a b Ian Urbina (12 February 2015). "Living Like a Local in Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia". The New York Times. Retrieved 4 July 2016.
  17. ^ Philip Golingai (10 May 2015). "Sabahan first, then a Malaysian". The Star. Archived from the original on 2 June 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2016.
  18. ^ Julia Chan (13 February 2015). "Sabah lists 42 ethnic groups to replace 'lain-lain' race column". The Malay Mail. Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  19. ^ Wendy Hutton (November 2000). Adventure Guides: East Malaysia. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 31–57. ISBN 978-962-593-180-7. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
  20. ^ a b Anne Lasimbang; Nancy Ariaini (1 November 2012). "The Peoples of the Heart of Borneo – Keeping Borneo indigenous languages alive" (PDF). World Wide Fund for Nature. p. 14/38 (26). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2016.
  21. ^ Richard Mason; Ariffin Omar (2003). "The 'Bumiputera Policy': Dynamics and Dilemmas" (PDF). Universiti Sains Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2016.
  22. ^ "Indigenous peoples – (a) Land rights of Indigenous Peoples". Human Rights Commission of Malaysia (SUHAKAM). Archived from the original on 2 October 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2015.
  23. ^ a b c d e f Patricia Regis; Anne Lasimbang; Rita Lasimbang; J. W. King. "Introduction to Integration of Indigenous Culture into Non-Formal Education Programmes in Sabah" (PDF). Ministry of Tourism and Environmental Development, Partners of Community Organisations (PACOS), Kadazandusun Language Foundation and Summer Institute of Linguistics, Malaysia Branch, Sabah. Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (Japan). Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 28 August 2016.
  24. ^ "About Sabah". Sabah State Government. Archived from the original on 20 May 2016. Retrieved 20 May 2016.
  25. ^ a b c d e The Report: Sabah 2011. Oxford Business Group. 2011. pp. 10–143. ISBN 978-1-907065-36-1.
  26. ^ Richard F. Tunggolou (21 February 1999). "Origins of Kadazan / Dusun". Kadazandusun Cultural Association (KDCA). Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  27. ^ "Kadazandusun". Kadazandusun Cultural Association (KDCA). Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  28. ^ a b c d e f Tamara Thiessen (2012). Borneo: Sabah, Brunei, Sarawak. Bradt Travel Guides. pp. 18–219. ISBN 978-1-84162-390-0.
  29. ^ Carl Skutsch (7 November 2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. Routledge. pp. 679–. ISBN 978-1-135-19388-1.
  30. ^ "Kadazan". Sabah Education Department. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
  31. ^ Fausto Barlocco (4 December 2013). Identity and the State in Malaysia. Taylor & Francis. pp. 166–. ISBN 978-1-317-93238-3.
  32. ^ Herman Scholz. "Pesta Ka'amatan (Sabah's Very Own Harvest Festival)". Flying Dusun. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
  33. ^ "Nunuk Ragang". Ranau District Office (in Malay). Sabah State Government. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
  34. ^ a b c d "Bajau". Sabah Education Department. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
  35. ^ "Regatta Lepa – Pesta Air Tahunan". Semporna District Office (in Malay). Sabah State Government. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
  36. ^ "Bajau Laut". PKPKM Sabah. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
  37. ^ Megan Lane (12 January 2011). "What freediving does to the body". BBC News. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
  38. ^ Frans Welman (9 March 2017). Borneo Trilogy Volume 2: Sabah. Booksmango. pp. 125–. ISBN 978-616-245-079-2.
  39. ^ Herman Scholz. "Cultural Heritage". Flying Dusun. Archived from the original on 6 June 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
  40. ^ a b Rozan Yunos (24 October 2011). "In search of Brunei Malays outside Brunei". The Brunei Times. Archived from the original on 14 May 2016. Retrieved 28 December 2012.
  41. ^ IBP, Inc. (1 February 2005). Labuan Offshore Investment and Business Guide – Strategic and Practical Information. Lulu.com. pp. 11–. ISBN 978-0-7397-6155-7.
  42. ^ Anwar Sullivan; Cecilia Leong (1981). Commemorative History of Sabah, 1881–1981. Sabah State Government, Centenary Publications Committee.
  43. ^ Asmah Haji Omar (1983). The Malay Peoples of Malaysia and Their Languages. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia.
  44. ^ Julie K. King; John Wayne King (1984). Languages of Sabah: Survey Report. Department of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. ISBN 978-0-85883-297-8.
  45. ^ Nelleke Elisabeth Goudswaard (2005). The Begak (Ida'an) language of Sabah. LOT. ISBN 978-90-76864-73-0.
  46. ^ Suraya Sintang (2007). Sejarah dan budaya Bugis di Tawau, Sabah (in Malay). Penerbit USM dengan kerjasama Persatuan Kebajikan Bugis Sabah (PKBS). ISBN 978-983-2369-66-0.
  47. ^ Mencari Indonesia: demografi-politik pasca-Soeharto (in Indonesian). Yayasan Obor Indonesia. 2007. pp. 123–. ISBN 978-979-799-083-1.
  48. ^ Philip Golingai (26 May 2014). "Despised for the wrong reasons". The Star. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 29 August 2016.
  49. ^ A Murad Merican (20 August 2022). "The Suluk are natives of Sabah, but their narrative is absent". New Straits Times. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  50. ^ Mohammad Al-Mahdi Tan Kho; Hurng-yu Chen (July 2014). "Malaysia-Philippines Territorial Dispute: The Sabah Case" (PDF). National Chengchi University. NCCU Institutional Repository. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 May 2016. Retrieved 9 May 2016.
  51. ^ The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China, and Australia. Parbury, Allen, and Company. 1820. pp. 238–.
  52. ^ a b c d Danny Wong Tze Ken (1999). "Chinese Migration to Sabah Before the Second World War". Archipel. 58 (3). Persée: 131–158. doi:10.3406/arch.1999.3538. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
  53. ^ a b "Sabah appreciates Chinese community's contribution". Bernama. The Brunei Times. 23 January 2013. Archived from the original on 6 June 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
  54. ^ Julia Chan (22 May 2015). "In Hakka song for Sino-Kadazan girls, a Johorean's paean to multicultural Sabah (VIDEO)". The Malay Mail. Archived from the original on 3 June 2016. Retrieved 3 June 2016.
  55. ^ Melvin Ember; Carol R. Ember; Ian Skoggard (30 November 2004). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Volume I: Overviews and Topics; Volume II: Diaspora Communities. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 699–. ISBN 978-0-306-48321-9.
  56. ^ "Constitution of the Sabah United Chinese Chambers of Commerce". Sabah United Chinese Chambers of Commerce. Archived from the original on 6 June 2016. Retrieved 6 June 2016.
  57. ^ Bernard Jia Han Ng (2021), "The Naming Systems of the Half Chinese and Half Native in Sabah, Malaysia", Journal of History and Anthropology, retrieved 3 June 2024
  58. ^ "Keunikan sambutan Tahun Baru Cina masyarakat Sino Kadazan", Wartawan Nabalu News (in Malay), 25 January 2023, retrieved 3 June 2024
  59. ^ Patrick Simon (2015). Social Statistics and Ethnic Diversity: Cross-National Perspectives in Classifications and Identity Politics. Springer. p. 154. ISBN 978-331920-095-8.
  60. ^ "Buang petak 'Bangsa-bangsa Lain', kita semua Keluarga Malaysia". Astro Awani. 2021. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
  61. ^ Susan Sterett (2017). Immigration. The International Library of Essays in Law and Society. Routledge. p. 100. ISBN 978-135192-851-9.
  62. ^ Demographic and Socioeconomic Changes in Sabah. Universiti Malaysia Sabah Pres. 13 May 2022. ISBN 9789672738251. Retrieved 31 August 2022.
  63. ^ "Population Distribution By Local Authority Areas And Mukims 2000". Mycensus.gov.my. 15 August 2022. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  64. ^ "Population Distribution by Local Authority and Mukims 2010". Mycensus.gov.my. 15 August 2022. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  65. ^ "TABURAN PENDUDUK MENGIKUT PBT & MUKIM 2010". Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
  66. ^ a b "Taburan Penduduk dan Ciri-ciri Asas Demografi". Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
  67. ^ Ivor H. N. Evans (1912). "Notes on the Religious Beliefs, Superstitions, Ceremonies and Tabus of the Dusuns of the Tuaran and Tempassuk Districts, British North Borneo" (PDF). Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Adventure Travel Expeditions in Southeast Asia, JSTOR. pp. 380–396. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 11 July 2016.
  68. ^ Owen Rutter (1929). "The Pagans of North Borneo". The Geographical Journal. 74 (3). The Geographical Journal, JSTOR: 295–297. Bibcode:1929GeogJ..74..295G. doi:10.2307/1784380. JSTOR 1784380.
  69. ^ a b Mariah Doksil (25 August 2014). "Islam arrived in Sabah in 10th century". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 11 July 2016.
  70. ^ "Part 6: The Borneo Mission". Saint Joseph's Missionary Society of Mill Hill. Archived from the original on 11 July 2016. Retrieved 11 July 2016.
  71. ^ a b Yong Leng Lee (1965). North Borneo (Sabah): A Study in Settlement Geography. Eastern Universities Press.
  72. ^ a b S. Chandrasekhar (2011). Hungry People and Empty Lands: An Essay on Population Problems and International Tensions. Routledge. pp. 294–. ISBN 978-0-415-59538-4.
  73. ^ "Constitution of the State of Sabah". Sabah State Government (State Attorney-General's Chambers). Archived from the original on 15 June 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
  74. ^ a b c d Carlo Caldarola (1 January 1982). Religion and Societies: Asia and the Middle East. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-082353-0.
  75. ^ a b Mohd Nazim Ganti Shaari (2014). ""Unconstitutional Constitutional Amendments?": Exploring the 1973 Sabah Constitutional Amendment that Declared Islam the State Religion" (PDF). Universiti Sains Malaysia. pp. 1–21. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 June 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
  76. ^ a b Nigel (16 August 2013). "Mustapha Bertanggungjawab Ubah Demografi Sabah" [Mustapha Responsible for Changing Sabah Demographical Patterns]. Sabah State Government (in Malay). Kudat Town Board. Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  77. ^ a b c Faisal H. Hazis (2015). "Patronage, Power and Prowess: Barisan Nasional's Equilibrium Dominance in East Malaysia" (PDF). Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Universiti Sains Malaysia. pp. 15/24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 June 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2016.
  78. ^ Report on the Census of Population Taken on 10th August, 1960. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1962.
  79. ^ Report on the Census of Population Taken on 10th August, 1960. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1962.
  80. ^ Maria Perpetua Kana (24 March 2004). "Christian Mission in Malaysia: Past Emphasis, Present Engagement and Future Possibilities" (PDF). School of Theology, Faculty of Arts and Sciences. Australian Catholic University. p. 120 (125/140). Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 June 2016. Retrieved 19 June 2016.
  81. ^ Mohammad Agus Yusoff (1999). "The Politics of centre-state conflict: the Sabah experience under the ruling Sabah Alliance (1963–1976)" (PDF). Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. p. 14/25. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 November 2017. Retrieved 4 November 2017.
  82. ^ a b c Yew-Foong Hui (2013). Encountering Islam: The Politics of Religious Identities in Southeast Asia. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 169–. ISBN 978-981-4379-92-2.
  83. ^ Andrew Tian Huat Tan (2006). Southeast Asia: Threats in the Security Environment. Marshall Cavendish Academic. ISBN 978-981-210-392-5.
  84. ^ Tai-Chee Wong; Jonathan Rigg (13 September 2010). Asian Cities, Migrant Labor and Contested Spaces. Routledge. pp. 12–. ISBN 978-1-136-92379-1.
  85. ^ a b Richard Joe Jimmy (7 May 2016). "Don't mess with religion". Daily Express. Archived from the original on 15 June 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
  86. ^ Sandra Sokial (15 August 2014). "Sabah Christians often mistaken as Muslims for carrying 'bin' or 'binti' in MyKad". The Rakyat Post. Archived from the original on 15 June 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
  87. ^ "Conversion issue must be handled delicately: NGO". Daily Express. 9 February 2014. Archived from the original on 15 June 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
     • Joe Fernandez (6 March 2015). "Muslim NGOs can't enter Sabah as they like". Free Malaysia Today. Archived from the original on 15 June 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
     • Julia Chan (19 January 2016). "Facebook user claims part of ABIM mission to 'convert' Sabah villagers". The Malay Mail. Yahoo! News. Archived from the original on 15 June 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
  88. ^ "Sabah school in conversion row must be held accountable, father insists". The Malay Mail. Yahoo! News. 26 March 2015. Archived from the original on 21 December 2015. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
     • "Sabah leaders demand explanation for underaged girl's conversion". The Star. 9 February 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2016.
     • Wong Chun Wai (5 April 2015). "Teach, not convert students". The Star. Archived from the original on 15 June 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
  89. ^ "Sabah apostates: Repent or go to 'jail'". Free Malaysia Today. 12 January 2011. Archived from the original on 18 June 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
  90. ^ Ida Lim (12 July 2014). "Path to leave Islam simple, but far from easy". The Malay Mail. Archived from the original on 18 June 2017. Retrieved 18 June 2017.
  91. ^ Julia Chan (14 July 2017). "Sabahan goes to court in bid to start Christian radio station". The Malay Mail. Archived from the original on 18 July 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2017.
  92. ^ "Bid to seek approval for Christian radio licence". Daily Express. 14 July 2017. Archived from the original on 18 July 2017. Retrieved 18 July 2017.
  93. ^ Julia Chan (23 August 2015). "In Sabah, shivers of discomfit over rising religious barriers". The Malay Mail. Archived from the original on 3 September 2016. Retrieved 3 September 2016.
  94. ^ "No forced conversions: Najib". Daily Express. 2 November 2015. Archived from the original on 15 June 2016. Retrieved 15 June 2016.
  95. ^ "Churches: Louder calls to restore religious freedom". Daily Express. 28 July 2016. Archived from the original on 28 July 2016. Retrieved 28 July 2016.
  96. ^ E.P. Patanñe (30 January 1993). "Some facts and figures about Sabah and its people". Manila Standard Today. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  97. ^ a b c Herman Scholz (2003). "Languages of Sabah". Flying Dusun. Archived from the original on 25 June 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  98. ^ Miller, Mark T. (2007). A Grammar of West Coast Bajau (Ph.D. thesis). University of Texas at Arlington. pp. 5–. hdl:10106/577.
  99. ^ Asmah Haji Omar (2015). Languages in the Malaysian Education System: Monolingual Strands in Multilingual Settings. Routledge. pp. 53–. ISBN 978-1-317-36421-4.
  100. ^ JKL Wong (2012). "The Sabah Malay Dialect: A Phonological Study of The Urban Dialect of Kota Kinabalu City" (PDF). University of Malaya. p. 7/11. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  101. ^ a b "Why Sabahans reluctant to speak, learn English". Daily Express. 26 January 2015. Archived from the original on 25 June 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  102. ^ Susanne Michaelis (2008). Roots of Creole Structures: Weighing the Contribution of Substrates and Superstrates. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-5255-5.
  103. ^ "BM is Sabah's official language – Keruak". The Borneo Post. 22 November 2015. Archived from the original on 25 June 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  104. ^ "National Language (Application) Enactment 1973" (PDF). Sabah State Government (State Attorney-General's Chambers). 27 September 1973. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  105. ^ Rita Lasimbang (2004). "To Promote the Kadazandusun Languages of Sabah" (PDF). Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (Japan). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
  106. ^ "55,975 bumiputera pupils in Chinese schools". Bernama. The Sun. 17 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 June 2016. Retrieved 17 August 2016.
  107. ^  • Boo Teik Khoo (2003). Beyond Mahathir: Malaysian Politics and Its Discontents. Zed Books. pp. 28–. ISBN 978-1-84277-465-6.
     • Lee Hock Guan; Leo Suryadinata (2012). Malaysian Chinese: Recent Developments and Prospects. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 189–. ISBN 978-981-4345-08-8.
     • "Master as many languages, youths told". Daily Express. 9 February 2011. Archived from the original on 26 June 2016. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
     • Tan Sin Chow (26 May 2016). "Missing School Kids at the SKs". The Star. Archived from the original on 26 June 2016. Retrieved 26 June 2016.
  108. ^ Rob Gordon (12 July 2014). "What's mentoring English language teachers in Borneo like?". British Council. Archived from the original on 28 July 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  109. ^ "2015 Fulbright English Teaching Assistants". U.S. Embassy in Malaysia. 5 January 2015. Archived from the original on 28 July 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  110. ^ Sandra Sokial (5 November 2014). "Move to preserve, develop Kadazandusun language". The Rakyat Post. Archived from the original on 6 July 2016. Retrieved 6 July 2016.
  111. ^ "Opening Speech By Y.A.B. Datuk Seri Panglima Musa Haji Aman Chief Minister of Sabah, at the Launch of the State Level English Day Programme by the Sabah State Education Department Year 2016 at SMK Sri Nangka, Tuaran". Sabah State Government. 16 February 2016. Archived from the original on 28 July 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
     • "Tuesday is English day for Sabah schools". Bernama. The Sun. 16 February 2016. Archived from the original on 28 July 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
     • "Speak in English, Sabah youths urged". The Star. 17 February 2016. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  112. ^ "Cannot stop Sabah using English: CM". Daily Express. 11 September 2018. Archived from the original on 21 September 2018. Retrieved 21 September 2018.
  113. ^ Arvin Tajari; Nurfazlina Affendi (2015). "Illegal Immigrant and Security Crisis in Sabah (Malaysia)" (PDF). UCSI University. World Conferences. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
  114. ^ Marryan Razan (18 August 2016). "Indonesians in Sabah urged to respect Malaysian laws". New Sabah Times. Archived from the original on 24 August 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
  115. ^ "M'sian citizenship 'ang pow' for teacher from Taiwan". The Borneo Post. 11 February 2011. Archived from the original on 24 August 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
  116. ^ Lam Mei Yee (2001). "The overseas Chinese as farmers in Sabah and Sarawak: A Comparative Study" (PDF). University of Hong Kong. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
  117. ^ "120 Indians awaiting permanent residence status in Malaysia". NDTV. 4 November 2013. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
  118. ^ "Brisk business at Korea Fair". New Sabah Times. 28 September 2009. Archived from the original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
  119. ^ マレーシア在留邦人数の調査結果について (in Japanese). Embassy of Japan in Malaysia. 14 February 2009. Archived from the original on 24 August 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
  120. ^ "Office of Labour Affairs and Embassy of Thailand in Malaysia visited Thai workers in Sabah". Ministry of Labour, Thailand. 24 February 2010. Archived from the original on 24 August 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
  121. ^ a b Geoffrey C. Gunn (18 December 2010). Historical Dictionary of East Timor. Scarecrow Press. pp. 71–. ISBN 978-0-8108-7518-0.
  122. ^ a b c d e f Sina Frank (May 2006). "Project Mahathir: 'Extraordinary' Population Growth in Sabah (The History of Illegal Immigration to Sabah)" (PDF). Im Fokus. German Institute of Global and Area Studies. pp. 72 and 73/2 and 3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 November 2014. Retrieved 6 November 2014.
  123. ^ a b c "Future Challenges for Southeast Asian Nations in Maritime Security (Comperehensive Security, Piracy and the Malaysian Securitisation Discourse)" (PDF). Institute for International Policy Studies (Japan). pp. 3/9. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 August 2016. Retrieved 24 August 2016.
  124. ^ Robert Hopkins Miller (2002). Vietnam and Beyond: A Diplomat's Cold War Education. Texas Tech University Press. pp. 178–. ISBN 978-0-89672-491-4.
  125. ^ Steven Erlanger (19 November 1989). "THE WORLD; Once Again, Vietnamese Are Turned Out to Sea". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 April 2017. Retrieved 15 April 2017.
     • "Viet boat refugee's best X'mas gift". Daily Express. 3 January 2017. Archived from the original on 4 January 2017. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
     • Jia Vern Tham (26 December 2016). "Why do certain refugees get VIP treatment over others in Malaysia?". cilisos.my. Archived from the original on 26 December 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
     • Zakiah Koya (1 June 2015). "The 'shoo policy' of Mahathir and how he has changed". The Heat Malaysia. Archived from the original on 20 December 2016. Retrieved 4 January 2017.
  126. ^ "20,000 foreigners married locals". Daily Express. 23 May 2013. Archived from the original on 25 August 2016. Retrieved 25 August 2016.
  127. ^ Azlan Tajuddin (14 June 2012). Malaysia in the World Economy (1824–2011): Capitalism, Ethnic Divisions, and "Managed" Democracy. Lexington Books. pp. 58–. ISBN 978-0-7391-7197-4.
  128. ^ Alexander Horstmann; Reed L. Wadley† (30 May 2006). Centering the Margin: Agency and Narrative in Southeast Asian Borderlands. Berghahn Books. pp. 149–. ISBN 978-0-85745-439-3.
  129. ^ "Kababayan community holds first gathering in Sabah". The Borneo Post. 28 September 2015. Archived from the original on 13 July 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2016.
  130. ^ Shanti Nair (11 January 2013). Islam in Malaysian Foreign Policy. Routledge. pp. 67–. ISBN 978-1-134-96099-6.
  131. ^ Ruben Sario (19 September 2013). "'Secret' taskforce entrusted from 1970s with issuing ICs to Sabah immigrants, Anwar tells RCI". The Star. Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  132. ^ "Projek IC started by Sabah's founding father, RCI told". The Malay Mail. The Malaysian Bar. 16 August 2013. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  133. ^ a b "Another case of citizenship denied?". Daily Express. 11 April 2016. Archived from the original on 5 September 2016. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
  134. ^ Tracy Patrick (9 March 2017). "NRD has done it without Syariah Court OK". Daily Express. Archived from the original on 9 March 2017. Retrieved 10 March 2017.
  135. ^ "Indonesian video shows how easy it is to enter Sabah illegally (VIDEO)". The Malay Mail. 21 September 2016. Archived from the original on 24 September 2016. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  136. ^ Indonesia Border Eps 66: Jalur tikus para TKI ilegal di pulau sebatik menuju Malaysia (Segmen 02). iNewsTV (07:22) (in Indonesian). Me Tube Indonesia. 23 May 2016. Archived from the original on 20 September 2017. Retrieved 24 September 2016.
  137. ^  • Sean M. Lynn-Jones; Steven E. Miller (January 1995). Global Dangers: Changing Dimensions of International Security. MIT Press. pp. 205–. ISBN 978-0-262-62097-0.
     • "Illegal immigrants causing simmering resentment in Sabah". The Malaysian Times. 22 August 2012. Archived from the original on 29 June 2014. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
     • Phyllis Wong (10 November 2013). "When security may not guarantee safety". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
     • "Najib announces setting up of RCI to probe issue of illegal immigrants in Sabah". Bernama. The Borneo Post. 2 June 2012. Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
     • Azura Abas (23 March 2016). "'Sabahan' security guards turn out to be Filipino, Indonesian". New Straits Times. Archived from the original on 2 June 2016. Retrieved 2 June 2016.
  138. ^ Andrew M. Carruthers (15 March 2016). "Sabah ICs for Sabahans: Will it Help?" (PDF). Perspective. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISSN 2335-6677. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  139. ^ "Recall exercise can ensure integrity of IC, RCI told". Bernama. The Brunei Times. 23 June 2013. Archived from the original on 1 June 2016. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
  140. ^ Tracy Patrick (11 April 2017). "Speed up granting of documents to locals". Daily Express. Archived from the original on 11 April 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2017.
  141. ^ Muguntan Vanar (4 May 2017). "Musa Aman: NRD must immediately rectify errors in religion listings". The Star. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demographics_of_Sabah&oldid=1253699182#Ethnic_groups"