Wikipedia

Fang Chih

In this Chinese name, the family name is Fang.

Fang Chih or Fang Zhi (Chinese: 方治; 23 November 1895 – 28 March 1989), courtesy name: Xikong (希孔), was a politician, provincial governor, diplomat, author and a high-ranking Kuomintang official of the Republic of China.

Fang Chih
方治
The memorial to Fang Chih at Okinawa.
KMT Chairman of Fujian Province[1]
In office
1927–1929
PresidentChiang Kai-shek
GovernorSa Chen-Ping
Yang Shu-chuang
KMT Chairman of Anhui Province[1]
In office
1927–1929
PresidentChiang Kai-shek
GovernorCh'en Tiao-yuan
Han Kuo-chun
KMT Chairman of Qingdao Municipality[1]
In office
1927–1929
Serving with Ma Fuxiang (Mayor)
PresidentChiang Kai-shek
Succeeded byChen Tiao-yuan
Acting Minister of Information of the Republic of China[1]
In office
1930–1937
PresidentChiang Kai-shek
Commissioner of Education for Anhui and Hubei Province[1]
In office
1938–1939
PresidentChiang Kai-shek
GovernorLiao Lei (Anhui)
Chairman of the Transitional National Government Committee of the Ministry of Education[1]
In office
1940–1940
PresidentChiang Kai-shek
KMT Chairman of Chongqing Municipality[1]
In office
1941–1946
Serving with Zhang Dulun (Mayor)
PresidentChiang Kai-shek
KMT Chairman of Shanghai Municipality[1][2]
In office
1946 – 25 May 1949
Serving with K. C. Wu (Mayor)
PresidentChiang Kai-shek
Preceded byWu Shao-hsu
Succeeded byCity taken by communists Chen Yi
Secretary General & Acting Governor of Fujian Province
and KMT Chairman of Fujian[1][3]
In office
May 1949 – 23 November 1949 (From Kinmen after 17 August 1949)
PresidentChiang Kai-shek
GovernorZhu Shaoliang
Hu Lien
Preceded byZhu Shaoliang
Succeeded byHuang Jintao [zh]
Secretary General & Chairman of the Free China Relief Association[1][4][5]
In office
1949–1972
PresidentChiang Kai-shek
Preceded byOrganization Founded
Succeeded byKu Cheng-kang
President of the Sino-Ryukyuan Cultural and Economic Association[1][6][7]
In office
1958–1988
Preceded byOrganization Founded
Succeeded byDavid Chang Hsi-cheh[8]
Founder and Trustee of the Sino-Laotian Economic and Cultural Association
In office
27 August 1959 – 1988
Preceded byOrganization Founded
Personal details
Born(1895-11-23)23 November 1895
Tongcheng, Zongyang County, Anhui Province, Qing Empire
Died28 March 1989(1989-03-28) (aged 93)
Taipei, Taiwan Province, Republic of China
Resting placeOnna Village, Kunigami District, Okinawa Prefecture, Kyushu, Japan
26°26′47″N 127°48′19″E / 26.44639°N 127.80528°E / 26.44639; 127.80528
CitizenshipRepublic of China
NationalityChinese
Political partyKuomintang
Alma materTokyo Higher Normal School
Tokyo Imperial University
Military service
Allegiance Republic of China
Branch/service National Revolutionary Army
RankSecretary General
Chief Executive
Unit Beijing-Hangzhou Garrison Corps, General Headquarters
Beijing-Shanghai Garrison Corps, General Headquarters
Battles/warsWorld War II
Chinese Civil War: Fall of Shanghai, Guningtou
Korean War
Burma Campaign
Fang Chih
Chinese name
Chinese方治
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu PinyinFāng Zhì
Wade–GilesFang1 Chih4
Japanese name
Kanji方治
In this Chinese name, the family name is Fang.

Family history and early life

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Fang Chih was born into the prominent Tongcheng Fang clan in Tongcheng, Anhui, Qing empire in November 1895.[citation needed] His father was Fang Rong (Chinese: 方蓉; pinyin: Fāng Róng, courtesy: 方镜卿), the middle son of Fang Lanfen, a Qing dynasty author.[citation needed] He is a direct descendant of Fang Zhipu (方至朴) and Fang Zhenru (方震孺), an early Qing scholar, author, magistrate and Governor of Guangxi Province. He was also a descendant of Fang Bao, a distinguished Qing author[9] who founded the Tongcheng school of literary prose.[10]

His paternal uncles were Fang Quan, a late Qing dynasty era prefect and Fang Zao (Chinese: 方藻; pinyin: Fāng Zǎo, courtesy: 方澄卿). Fang's father died when he was 1 or 2 years old in 1896 and his mother sent him to be raised by his paternal uncle Fang Quan and paternal grandfather.[11]

Education

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Fang Chih graduated from Anhui Province Tongcheng Secondary School (Chinese: 安徽省桐城中学), known as a producer of many revolutionary Anhui leaders, which he attended alongside Zhang Bojun, Wu Zipei (Chinese: 吴子培), and Yu Guanglang among other notable classmates. Due to the hostility between the Beiyang government regime and the KMT, many of the KMT families moved into exile in Japan and Chiang Kai-shek's Northern Expedition defeated Beiyang by 1928. In 1919, with financial support from his uncle, Fang Peiqing (方培卿), Fang Chi went to Tokyo, Japan where he learned Japanese and pursued his studies at the Tokyo Higher Normal School and the Tokyo Imperial University. On 14 July 1925, Fang married Masue Ueki (Chinese: 方益之; pinyin: Fāng Yìzhī; Wade–Giles: Fang I-chih), a Japanese woman,[1][12] fellow Kuomintang member and classmate at the Tokyo Imperial University studying dentistry. He would graduate with a master's degree from the College of Arts and Science at Tokyo Imperial University in 1927.[citation needed]

Whilst at school, Fang was involved in the leadership structure of the KMT student groups active in Japan in the Chinese student community. These groups were founded by the Tongmenghui clique cemented in Japan by Wang Jingwei.[13] The KMT student organization was set up in the Kanda district where a Chinese communist group was already active at the Tokyo YMCA. Specifically, Fang was involved in countering Communist propaganda and student groups run by Japanese educated Chinese Communists such as Shi Qian (史迁), Wang Buwen, Tong Changrong [zh], Yu Dahua (余大化) and Fang Bin at the Hubei Railway School of Tokyo or the Tokyo Railway Specialized School, a school set up by Zhang Zhidong for Chinese international students whose graduates went on to serve in the railway industry at Hubei for 6 years.[14]

Return from Japan

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Fang Chih returned from Japan in 1927. After his return, he joined the Northern Expedition of Chiang Kai-shek working in Hubei, Jiangxi, Hunan and Hubei Provinces where he gained the attention of General Chiang. He was made the Chairman of the Fujian Provincial Party Headquarters of the KMT at the suggestion of a fellow Japanese educated classmate Dai Chuanxian with Chiang's approval. This role was expanded to oversee the KMT Chairmanship of Anhui Provincial Party Headquarters and that of Qingdao. Whilst in Anhui, Fang Chi led a political purge of the local party together with Shao Hua on the orders of Chen Lifu, founder of the CC Clique or the Central Club Clique and head of the Central Bureau of Investigation and Statistics of the Central Committee.[15] The purge mechanism in Anhui later swept up his former rival and classmate from Japan, Wang Buwen who was arrested in April 1931 and executed the following month. His work during this period was focused primarily in Hubei, Jiangxi, Qingdao, Nanjing, Hunan, Anhui and Fujian provinces in various military, political, party affairs and education related jobs.

His organizational skills and writing ability soon gained the attention of Chen Lifu, with whom he regularly corresponded. The connection with Chen Lifu aligned Fang with the CC Clique faction of the KMT and led to his increased involvement in the operations of the Bureau of Investigation and Statistics. By March 1929, he was promoted to Chief Secretary of the Department of Propaganda of the Central Committee by Shao Yuanchong who was one of four people responsible for the lyrics of the National Anthem of the Republic of China. He was posted to Nanjing and Shanghai. In 1930, he was acting Minister of Information and by September 1931, he was promoted to the Chief Secretary of the Publicity Committee.[16]

Information Ministry activities

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In the early 1930s, rumors in Shanghai began spreading of an assassination list compiled by a secretive KMT group that became collectively known as the Blue Shirts Society. By 1933, these rumors began to come into the mainstream Shanghai press, particularly due to articles printed in the left leaning China Forum published by American radical Harold Isaacs. On 20 July 1933, due to the perceived negative public perception, Fang published an article in the Shanghai Evening Post and Mercury denouncing the rumors and the existence of the Blue Shirts saying "No Blue Shirts; No (death) list, its all wrong."[17][18]

In fact, the Central Bureau of Investigation and Statistics, the CC Clique's counterintelligence organ was heavily involved in myriad kill or capture missions in Shanghai during this period. In 1929, Zhou Enlai returned to Shanghai, after a brief period of exile following the 1927 Shanghai Massacre, to set up the Communist response to the KMT called the "Special Service Section of the Central Committee" or "Teke" (中央特科). This led to a bloodbath culminating in the summer of 1931 with a full blown purge and the second flight of Zhou Enlai from the city.

In April 1931, KMT agents arrested Gu Shunzhang in Wuhan. Gu was one of Zhou's Aides of Security Affairs and his interrogation and subsequent defection from the Communists yielded to the Nationalists the entire scope of Zhou's operations in Shanghai and beyond.[19] On 21 June 1931, Gu's entire section of the Special Service was either captured or fled with 24 arrested including his superior and General Secretary Xiang Zhongfa in Shanghai and Cai Hesen in Hong Kong. Xiang was quickly executed after his interrogation and the resulting windfall of information led the KMT to conduct an even greater purge of the Communist intelligence networks. The scope of this purge was put at around 3,000 Communists by the French Intelligence Bureau of the Shanghai French Concession and lasted until at least 1934 as the Communists from Jiangxi attempted to reestablish networks in Guangzhou and Shanghai under Chen Geng and Deng Zhongxia. Deng and Chen were both arrested though only Deng was executed as Chen had saved Chiang Kai-shek's life during a previous battle against the Warlord Chen Jiongming.[20]

Gu Shunzhang was executed in Suzhou in December 1934 or June 1935.

By 1935, the counterintelligence situation had quieted down with most of the Communist networks significantly weakened. Fang was an elected to become a member of the Kuomintang Central Executive Committee,[21] attending the Kuomintang 5th National Congress in November[22] where he was confirmed as Deputy Minister of Propaganda. He was also transferred again, this time to Qingdao Municipality and served as the KMT Chairman of the region.

CC Clique

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As Deputy Minister of Propaganda in the period leading up to war with Japan between 1931 and 1937, Fang began to focus his activities on exploiting what he perceived to be a growing division between a majority of the Japanese population being largely desirous of peace and a minority of pro-militant actors supporting an invasion of China policy embedded in high places within the Japanese government since the tenure of Tanaka Giichi as Prime Minister[23][24] and headed contemporarily by Prime Minister Hideki Tojo.[25] In around 1935, Fang organized a daily radio broadcast in Japanese operating from two pseudo official Japanese stations located in Fukuoka and Nagasaki respectively. The messages conveyed were on the mutual destruction that war would bring to both nations, the shared history and culture between Japan and the ROC.[26]

The broadcasts ceased after a serious diplomatic incident between Japan and the ROC ensued following a party at the Japanese Consulate General in Nanjing where Deputy Foreign Minister and Foreign Affairs Secretary and Wang Jingwei loyalist Tang Youren [zh] let slip that the radio program was being run under Fang's supervision. Once the information reached Tokyo, the Japanese government issued the ROC an ultimatum to either extradite both Fang and his wife to Japan or a Japanese battleship would be dispatched from Shanghai to Nanjing to raid the KMT Headquarters. In response, KMT Secretary General Yeh Chucang [zh] requested that Fang terminate the program. The matter was deferred to Chiang Kai-shek who decided to stop the broadcasts but moved to protect Fang. He also asserted that any incursions into the Nanjing area by Japanese naval forces would be met with force. On 1 November 1935, Wang Jingwei stepped down from his post when he was shot at by a sniper in an assassination attempt just before the 5th National Congress.[27] Tang Youren was relieved of his duties as Deputy Foreign Affairs Minister in early December 1935 and transferred to become Vice Minister at the Ministry of Transport and Communications. He was assassinated in Shanghai on 25 December 1935 before assuming his new role.[26][28][29][30][31][32]

Fang attended the Second National Motion-Picture Conference which was convened by the Central Party Publicity Committee in Shanghai. Fang used the motion picture industry in Shanghai to promote KMT party ideals to the people. These propagated the ideas of the New Life Movement which was the brainchild of General Chiang Kai-shek and his wife Soong Mei-ling and was supported by the CC Clique and the Blue Shirts Society.[33]

In October 1935, Fang collaborated with Zhang Daofan, Lei Chen, and Yu Shangyuan to build the Nanjing National Theatre Academy where Yu was installed as president. The school was run as an organ of the KMT Propaganda Department and the Ministry of Education. In 1938, a second school was opened in Sichuan, Jiang'an County and named the National Theatre Academy. It was the first modern drama school for higher education ever built in China.

In November 1935 at a meeting of the KMT Big Five, Fang Chih was elected to the Central Committee of the Kuomintang cementing his position as a prominent fixture of the administration. In July 1936, there was a shakeup of the propaganda department after Liu Luyin was arrested on spy charges by Dai Li who was carrying out a purge of the party and Fang became the vice minister of the Board of Publicity.[21]

On 13 August 1937, Fang was transferred to the Ministry of Education, a department run by Minister and KMT Party Chairman Wang Shijie. The following year, Chen Lifu was appointed as Minister of Education.

Ministry of Education

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In October 1938, with the CC Clique's hold on the Ministry of Education in place, Fang Chih was appointed to the position of Education Commissioner of Anhui and Hubei Provinces.

On 19 May 1938, a squadron of two Chinese Air Force Martin B-10 bombers took off from Ningbo. The squadron flew over Nagasaki, Fukuoka, Kurume, Kyushu, Saga, and Sasebo distributing over 1 million leaflets containing various propaganda and disinformation, completing the mission with no human losses.[34]

In the late 1800s, Fang's uncle Fang Quan, who was a late-Qing era prefect and Tongcheng School literary figure, returned to Tongcheng to oversee the establishment of the Huabiao Primary School (华表小学), serving for a time as its principal. Fang oversaw the completion of Anhui Number 4 Provincial Primary School (z安徽省省立第四临时小学会宫分校) in 1939.

Chongqing

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In early 1941, Fang Chih was named the Party Chief and Chairman of the KMT in Chongqing. He was again elected to the Central Executive Committee at the 6th National Congress of Kuomintang in May 1945. In January 1946, Fang Chih was involved in an effort to disrupt Communist rally activities in Chongqing celebrating the legalization of the CCP the previous year. The rallies which were held throughout January and early February, were hosted by high level Communist representatives like Zhou Enlai, Guo Moruo, Shen Junru, Luo Longji, Ma Yinchu, Li Dequan who acted as general chairman and Li Gongpu who acted as the organizational commander. Chen Lifu tasked Fang, Ye Xiufeng and Wang Sicheng (王思诚) with organizing the violent suppression of the rallies. Fang's agents spied heavily on the rallies in efforts to document the Communist opposition forces who were operating in the open following the Double Tenth Agreement. Fang also collaborated with Chen Lifu, Ye Xiufeng and Wang Sicheng to move against the Communists by mobilizing large scale anti-Soviet marches around Chongqing.[citation needed] From 16–19 January, Guo Moruo, Zhang Dongsun and other Communists were attacked. On 26 January, police raided the home of Huang Yanpei, a Democratic League agitator and CCP ally.

This series of confrontations boiled over on 10 February with the Jiaochangkou incident which has been recorded as one of the major triggers leading to escalation in the Chinese Civil War.[35] The incident has been covered in many historical accounts, including most recently, the 2009 propaganda film The Founding of a Republic.[36] The Communists were meeting to celebrate the People's Consultative Conference and the concentration of radical Communist elements attracted the KMT secret police who violently dispersed the crowd though no actual fatalities were recorded though around 60 were wounded, some seriously. Both the KMT and the Communists used the incident to push for military escalation. Mao Zedong pushed for the CCP to withdraw entirely from the unity government and to pursue a military campaign following the incident, which he argued could be taken to mean that Chiang Kai-shek was not committed to peace.[37]

People tend to forget this (Chiang's commitment to anti-Communism), especially when the situation quiets down a little. We forgot this in 1–9 February; but, we remembered this again after the Jiaochangkuo Incident... All that has happened lately proves that Jiang's[note 1] anti-Soviet, anti-CCP, and anti-democratic nature will not change

— Mao Zedong

The KMT also used the incident to justify further crack downs on an increasingly active and anti-KMT CCP. Li Gongpu was assassinated by KMT agents on 11 July 1946 in Kunming. Li's funeral was also targeted on 15 July resulting in the assassination of Wen Yiduo.[38]

Shanghai

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In October 1946, Fang Chih was made the party boss and chairman of the Shanghai KMT Municipal Government, replacing Wu Shao-hsu, one of his longtime rivals within the CC Clique.[39] He was also made General Secretary of the Beijing-Hangzhou Government Garrison Headquarters Standing Committee. With the cessation of all the foreign concession areas by 1946, the city, was entirely under Nationalist control.[40] During his tenure, Fang Chih collaborated with Du Yuesheng of the Green Gang to consolidate various agitation groups and to root out Communist activity.[41]

By May 1946, Fang was dealing with increasingly serious political tension between Communist and Government student groups. These tensions boiled over in June when the opposing groups staged demonstrations with the pro-government groups rallying on 21 June and the Communists on 23 June.[42]

Between 1946 and 1949 during Fang's tenure in office, the population of Shanghai swelled from around 3.7 million in 1946[43] to 7.73 million in 1949[44] with Shanghai accounting for around 50 percent of all the factories in China, more than half of all Chinese shipping trade[45] and roughly 33 percent of China's total GDP.[46]

In 1947, Fang was elected to the political council of the Kuomintang.[47] In September 1947, the Nationalist government attempted a ban on commercial dance halls as an austerity measure to be implemented due to the ongoing civil war.[48] In response to the unpopular decision, which was implemented slowly and reluctantly by the Shanghai government, 200,000 taxi dancers took to the streets and riots ensued.[49] Fang's propaganda machine attempted to ease the situation with statements saying that dancing girls should be redirecting their talents to reconstructing the country and eliminating the Communist bandits. A Time magazine article quoted Fang attempts in this regards: "I think no patriotic man or woman wants to embrace each other under soft lights ... Dancing girls could be trained to acquire useful talents in reconstructing the country and wiping out bandits".[50]

Fang also made attempts to turn the selected dance halls that were actually closed into cafeterias employing the former taxi dancers.[51] In the end, the halfhearted ban served to drastically increase prostitution in the city, an issue that remained even after the government completely abandoned any further attempts to shutter the dance halls. Towards 1949, as a successful Nationalist defense of Shanghai became less likely, the problem became a useful way to lash out at the city's future management. By the time the Communists took over the city in 1949, there were around 40,000 licensed and unlicensed prostitutes operating in the city. The prostitution problem was a large obstacle for the Communists and remained an issue for them until around 1953 when prostitutes were sent en masse to labor camps.[52]

In August 1948, Fang delivered a speech to a large scale anti-Communist rally in Shanghai together with mayor K.C. Wu and Chairman of the City Council, Pan Kung-chan.[53]

In early 1949, the tide of the war was beginning to turn decidedly in favor of the Communists following the developments in the Huaihai and Pingjin Campaigns. The Nationalist army had lost around 1.5 million soldiers between 1948 and 1949.[54] On 6 January 1949, Fang made a proposal to send a delegation of Shanghai's citizens to speak with Communist officials, following a convening of Kuomintang policy makers which resulted in an agreement to attempt to sue for peace.[55] The move was seen as a response to the disobeying of Chiang Kai-shek's orders to march to the front and give battle by three Nationalist generals; Bai Chongxi, commander of the Hankou Garrison holding the Yangtze River West of Nanjing, Chang Chen, provincial commander of Hunan's Provincial Army whose troops were the only military force between the capital and the Communists to the north, and Chang Chien, commander of Changsha south of Hankou. The three commanders had attempted to force Chiang's resignation by sending telegrams asking Chiang to take a "vacation" instead of giving battle to the Communists.[55][56]

Fang's action, which was made to stall for time, did little to hinder the opening of a new front in Anhui by the Communists on 5 January, but it presented the quite accurate image of an increasingly desperate situation faced by the Nationalists. The situation was used as the background for Washington lobbyist William C. Bullitt who petitioned the United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs for a military intervention.[55][57][58]

Around this time, Chiang realized that the relocation or retreat of the entire army to Taiwan to regroup for a counterattack was not the ideal strategic move. Noting the sizeable number of former Japanese soldiers demobilized from the Japanese surrender still present in China under Nationalist control, Chiang also tasked Fang and a group of Kuomintang members with Japanese backgrounds, including Cao Shicheng, to look into the creation of a joint Sino-Japanese military force to hold the fledgling Eastern Coast of China against the Communists. A letter was delivered by Cao to former commander of the Japanese Imperial Army in China and the Japanese Chief of the KMT's Central Liaison Office to Deal With Remaining Soldiers since December 1945, Yasuji Okamura, informing him of the dire situation facing the Nationalist army and requesting that he order deactivated elements of the Japanese Imperial Army into Chiang's service as part of a Sino-Japanese army group.[59][60] Okamura was actually convicted of war crimes in November 1948 at the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal and then immediately protected by Chiang who took the general as an advisor. The Republic of China found Okamura not guilty in 1949 and returned him to Japan. In any event, these actions were too late to make any difference in the campaign.

By April 1949, the Nationalist army was in full retreat and the Communist forces were advancing on Shanghai.[61] Earlier in the year, Fang had been made Secretary General of the Beijing-Shanghai Garrison General Headquarters and was tasked outwardly with coordinating the retreat and relocation of personnel to Hong Kong and Taiwan.[2][62]

The Nationalist government did not allow most of the local population of the city to flee until the last possible moment for propaganda and psychological reasons resulting in a chaotic and disorganized retreat and a failure to effectively evacuate the city's wealth resulting not only in a devastating loss of people, property and financial assets. The excessive troop commitment to Shanghai's defense, which was a strategically unimportant city and only of political value, would go on to seriously hinder the fledgling Nationalist war effort. The KMT blunder at Shanghai, resulted in the further bleeding thin of its forces, and facilitated an easier campaign for the Communist victories at Ningbo, Wenzhou and in Canton Province.

At 11:00 am on 24 May 1949, Fang gathered the foreign press at the Broadway Mansions where he announced the Nationalist plans to hold the city:[63][64][65]

In order to deal the fatal blow to the Communist bandits, the Government made a decision to defend Shanghai to the last. General Tang En-po, with the highest determination, the groundwork completed, with... strong defense works, huge manpower, endless reserves of wealth, and the highest morale yet seen, has determined to defend the land and the people... Shanghai's defenders will hold out to the end... Every building in Shanghai is flying a Nationalist flag... the city will be defended street by street if necessary, even if it means the destruction of Shanghai... the Reds have lost 60,000 dead and wounded; 4,500 prisoners and 500 machine guns in besieging Shanghai. The Reds have suffered five casualties for every one sustained by the Nationalists... Being thoroughly trained and well-balanced correspondents, I would not doubt your duty to report this to the world... Shanghai will be defended like Stalingrad.

— Fang Chih, Escanaba Daily Press (1949)

On 25 May 1949, Fang Chi was forced to flee the city with the retreating Nationalist army together with Lei Chen, Ku Chen-kang, Chou Tse-jou and probably Tang Enbo, the last officials out of the city.[66] Shanghai fell to the CCP two days later on 27 May with approximately three fourths of the KMT defense forces killed or captured. Ironically, Fang's media statements threatening house to house fighting similar to the Battle of Stalingrad turned out to be disinformation as almost none of the fighting in the Battle of Shanghai took place inside the city. Some 153,000 Nationalist casualties were recorded which included the complete loss of the KMT 37th Army, the KMT 51st Army and 5 Traffic Police Divisions. Most of the survivors retreated to Taiwan via Guangzhou. In May, Fang was installed as Secretary-General, KMT Chairman and Acting Governor of Fujian Province at Fuzhou.

Fujian Province and retreat to Taiwan

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Communist troops in Fuzhou after seizing Fujian Province in November 1949.

By Mid-August 1949, the strategic situation for the Nationalists in Fujian was increasingly focused on having the retreat be as organized as possible. Focus had shifted entirely from engaging the Communists militarily to rearguard actions and the defense of Kinmen and Xiamen islands. On 15 August, this strategy was made public by the Kuomintang's Central Planning board who tasked Fang, Tang Enbo, and Lei Chen in the organization of the defense of the two Fujian islands.[67]

Mainland Fujian fell to the Communists in around November 1949 but many of its outlying islands including Quemoy (Kinmen) were successfully defended and the Republic of China retains control of them to this day. The defense of Kinmen specifically was extremely successful. The plan, allegedly formulated with the assistance of former Imperial Japanese Army planners,[68] consisted of allowing PLA forces to land on the island en masse, to cut off their retreat and supplies by gaining control of the sea and then to wipe out the remaining ground forces.

Pacification of the Mainland province by the Communist victors was not completed until February 1951. As a result of the fall of Mainland Fujian, the CCP set up Fujian Province with its capital at Fuzhou. The KMT, who retreated mainly to Taiwan, retained the province as Fujian Province and moved its capital from Fuzhou to Jingchen. The Battle of Guningtou proved to be the decisive battle that halted the Communist advance on many of the coastal islands still under KMT control, however many of these islands were later abandoned by the KMT or taken by force by the Communists during the First Taiwan Strait Crisis.

Later in 1949, Fang Chih was made Secretary-General of the newly founded Free China Relief Association, an organization that outwardly aimed to assist Chinese diaspora refugees displaced by the war and those still on the Mainland through relief aid. The organization was chaired by Ku Cheng-kang and its directors included Soong Mei-ling, Chen Cheng and Hu Shih amongst others.[69] In around 1954, the organization came under the umbrella of the Asian People's Anti-Communist League (APACL), a group founded jointly by Chiang Kai-shek of the ROC, Syngman Rhee of the ROK, and Elpidio Quirino of the Philippines. Ku Cheng-kang, Fang's partner at the FCRA would go on to head the APACL in Taipei and the two would continue this collaboration for the rest of their lives.[70][71]

In 1954, Fang Chih was involved in relief and publicity activities during the islands campaign in the final stages of the Chinese Civil War.[72]

Korean War

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PVA soldiers captured by US Marines during the Battle of Hoengsong

During the Korean War, Fang made several trips to the Korean peninsula where the KMT military was heavily involved in ground operations. Fang was in charge of an operation which saw the repatriation of Chinese "Volunteer" POWs to Taiwan as opposed to returning them to Mainland China. After the ceasefire which ended main phase of the Korean War, U.S. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, who negotiated the ceasefire himself, placed a provision in the agreement that Chinese prisoners of war would be allowed to choose where they would be repatriated. Contemporary Communist news sources attribute this decision to Fang Chih's "deception".[73] Of around 21,000 PVA prisoners, about 14,300 or two thirds of these prisoners held by the allies were sent to Taiwan[74] after the war due to the voluntary repatriation program.[75][76] The day of the prisoners return to Taiwan is now recognized as World Freedom Day in Taiwan and South Korea. The experiences of Chinese POWs during the Korean War have been fictionalized in Jin Xuefei's 2004 book War Trash.

Fang's role in the solicitation of mainland defectors or Anti-Communist Martyrs as they were known in Taiwan, expanded greatly during the Korean War and he later ran a program that rewarded mainland Chinese pilots with gold and other incentives if they defected to Taiwan with their warplanes.[77][78]

Golden Triangle

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A CAT C-46D in Indochina with ROC markings.

Following the defeat of the KMT in the Chinese Civil War, most of the Nationalist forces had retreated to Taiwan, however a significant portion of the Western army, which became known collectively as the Kuomintang 93rd Division, retreated from Yunnan Province into Burma and Thailand. Forces of the 15,000 strong KMT 13th Army under Li Mi established himself in Burma,[79] nearly creating a Shan State and attempted to invade Yunnan Province no less than seven times.[80] The 3,000 strong KMT 3rd Army under General Ly Wen-huan established themselves in Tang Ngop, Chiang Mai Province and the 4,000 strong KMT 5th Army under General Tuan Shi-wen established themselves in Mae Salong, Chiang Rai Province.[81][82] From around 1949, Fang became heavily involved in anti-communist activities in Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Burma and throughout Southeast Asia.

In late July and early August 1959, Fang was involved in FCRA operations in Laos, officially to help a group of around 8,000 displaced Chinese who had entered Laos as a result of political persecution in the mainland. On 4 August 1959, Fang reported that the group was drastically in need of supplies and had come from Yunnan Province.[83] On 27 August 1959, Fang Chi attended the foundation of the Sino-Laotian Friendship Society of which he was a trustee together with Ku Cheng-kang. The organization collaborated with the FCRA in an official capacity to bring relief aid to Chinese refugees in the Golden Triangle. The society also participated to an uncertain extent in operations with the Sananikone family's Veha Akhat and with the CAT though FCRA cooperation with the latter likely continued throughout the period.[84]

In January 1961, the Burmese military, in a secret alliance with the People's Liberation Army mounted a combined military operation against a major KMT base near the Mekong River. 5,000 Burmese troops and three divisions of the PLA attacked the fortified KMT base which was defended by an army of around 10,000 men. The operation was successful and the Burmese managed to defeat the KMT on 26 January though they retreated in good order. On 16[85] February 1961, a PB4Y-2 Privateer[85] or a B-24 Liberator[86] operating with the FCRA and carrying a payload of weaponry for the irregular troops who were retreating across the Mekong river into Laos and Thailand, was shot down by the Burmese Air Force resulting in a complaint being lodged at the United Nations. The aerial incident also involved the shooting down of a Burmese plane and the damaging of another suggesting that the mission could have been escorted by fighters. Fang accepted responsibility for the mission on behalf of the FCRA stating the private association's actions were completely separate from those of the Republic of China.[86]

Refugees and disaster relief

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Fang Chih hands disaster relief supplies to an official from the Ministry of National Defense for distribution to the Mainland after the 1976 Tangshan earthquake.

The area of operations of the Free China Relief Association was not restricted solely to the Golden Triangle. The organization was deeply embedded in pursuing the various overseas interests of the ROC throughout Asia and in the west.

Fang was involved in refugee relief actions via the FCRA[87] and the Chinese National Committee for World Refugee Year of which he was Secretary-General. Fang represented the Republic of China together with Li Ten-ping, the Assistant Secretary-General of the International Labor Bureau, before the UNHCR in Geneva, Switzerland.[88] From 12 to 26 January 1960, the council met in Geneva, Switzerland where the executive committee, chaired by Dr. Elfan Rees discussed the year's agenda. At the conference, Fang outlined his objectives to deliver aid to refugees from Tibet together with John McCarthy, Director of the Department of Immigration at the National Catholic Welfare Council.[89] Fang also outlined goals of assisting Chinese refugees in Hong Kong.[90] In May 1960, his committee was responsible for raising around US$10 million for Chinese refugees in Hong Kong where the FCRA had established an office since 1950[91][92] working closely with the Rennie's Mill Camp Refugees Relief Committee.[93] Some of the money was funneled to KMT organizations in the area of Tiu Keng Leng or Rennie's Mill, known for some time as Little Taiwan, which was a major support base for the Taiwanese cause until 1996 when the Hong Kong Government cleared the land for redevelopment with an eye on the upcoming transfer of sovereignty of Hong Kong.[91][94][95]

Attempts to evacuate ex soldiers living in the Rennie's Mill area of Hong Kong by the FCRA largely slowed or stopped in around 1980 when the duties of care and refugee relief in British Hong Kong were transferred from the Free China Relief Association to the Red Cross Society of China, after which no figures on evacuations to Taiwan were published.[96]

Following the 1976 Tangshan earthquake, the ROC mobilized the FCRA to organize disaster relief operations in the areas of Beijing, Tianjin and Tangshan. The FCRA collaborated with the Bank of Taiwan to provide a large quantity of donated humanitarian aid and food items from the people of Taiwan and organized bulk shipments via the International Red Cross to be distributed in the mainland. Beijing refused the aid shipments and the FCRA decided to launch the aid parcels directly to the mainland using unmanned balloons in collaboration with the Ministry of National Defense. These actions apparently triggered the scrambling of MiG interceptors tasked with shooting down the balloons. ROC Ambassador to the U.S. James Shen confirmed ROC actions to provide mainland disaster relief:

We would agree to have our help channeled through some international organization... We want to help the people. We have no quarrel with the people. They are our people. Our quarrel is with the Communist officials... (Peiping was handling the relief) in a typical Communist way, not in a typical Chinese way... They are more afraid of foreigners getting in than of their own people dying after an earthquake

— James Shen, This Month In Free China (October, 1976)

Taiwan's furious response to the mainland's refusal to accept the aid was a powerful piece of political drama at the time, serving its interests at home and abroad.[97]

Ryukyu

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Portrait of the University of the Ryukyus from the 1960s.
 
Fang Chih meets with Dwight Eisenhower during the latter's trip to Kadena Air Force Base, 19 June 1960.

In 1958, Fang Chih founded and became the president of the Sino-Ryukyuan Cultural and Economic Association, an organization dedicated to maintaining cultural and economic dialogue between the people of Taiwan and Ryukyu-Okinawa.[98]

Following the Japanese surrender at the end of World War II, the island of Okinawa was administered directly by the U.S. occupation forces from 1950 until May 1972 when the island was turned over to the Japanese government. The severance of official diplomatic relations between Japan and the Republic of China in September 1972 forced the association to effectively become the de facto embassy of the Republic of China in Okinawa. Fang's position at the Association demonstrated the importance the Republic of China placed on Okinawa / Ryukyu which hosted the largest U.S. military presence in the region. The military buildup on the island during the Cold War saw a dramatic increase in the strategic importance of the islands. Under the 1952 Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan, the USFJ have maintained this large military presence.

A contemporary US Civil Administration report from 1965 described Fang as follows:[5]

Actually he is one of the greatest brains of the Republic of China, serving as a national policy advisor to the President of the Republic of China and also as chief secretary for the Association for Relief of Compatriots in the Chinese Mainland (FCRA). The fact that he is concurrently serving as Chairman of the Board of Directors of the China-Ryukyu Cultural and Economic Relations Association shows the importance being attached by the Republic of China...

— United States Civil Administration, Office of Public Information, Ryukyu Islands (1965)

The office continues in its function under the same name[99][100] despite politically motivated attempts in 2006[101] to rename the office under the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office system.

In October 1985, Fang Chih convened the first Taipei-Naha Symposium which occurs annually alternating between Tokyo and Naha. The meetings were inaugurated after Professor Katsutaro Shimajiri (jp: 島尻勝太郎) of Okinawa University visited Taiwan in October 1983 for the purpose of a cultural exchange.[102]

Taiwan

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Following the retreat to Taiwan, Fang was consistently involved in anti-Mainland propaganda until the time of his death.

From March 29 to April 9, 1969, Fang attended the Kuomintang's 10th National Congress in Taipei.

In 1984, Fang wrote a column for Hong Kong magazine Cheng Ming where he attacked Mainland Chinese media censorship.[103]

In 1988, Fang was appointed the vice-president of the Free China Relief Association. Fang served together with Ku Cheng-kang who acted as president and C.C. Chen who served as its Secretary General.[104]

Marriage and descendants

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Fang Chih married Masue Ueki (Fang I-chih, Chinese: 方益之; pinyin: Fāng Yìzhī), a Japanese woman,[1][12] fellow Kuomintang member and classmate at the Tokyo Imperial University studying dentistry on 14 July 1925. The couple, both of whom grew up in only child households, had 11 children, three boys and eight girls.

By Masue Ueki:

  • Fang Guangqi (方光琪)
  • Fang Guanglong (方光龍)
  • Fang Guanghu (方光虎)[105]
  • Fang Guangying (方光瑛)
  • Fang Guangmei (方光𤧞)
  • Fang Guangpu (方光璞)
  • Fang Guangling (方光玲)
  • Fang Guangluo (方光珞)
  • Fang Guangan (方光𤦭)
  • Fang Guangxuan (方光璇)
  • Fang Guangyu (方光嶼)

Three of his children, Fang Guanglong, Fang Guanghu and Fang Guangfu became notable Taiwanese scientists. Fang Chih is also the maternal grandfather of American Fashion designer Anna Sui, a descendant of his first wife, Masue Ueki via the couple's first daughter, Fang Guangqi and her husband Paul Sui.[106]

Death and legacy

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The memorial to Fang Chi at Onna, Okinawa Prefecture.

Fang Chih died of natural causes on 28 March 1989 in Taipei, Taiwan Province, Republic of China at the age of 93.

A memorial and mausoleum[107] was built in his honor on Okinawa island complete with a statue bust and information on his accomplishments in Okinawa where he is remembered for his efforts to develop the post-World War II economy and for his influence in opening the island to trade with the Republic of China given the two islands' shared history of Japanese and Chinese influences. The phrases "Friend of the Ryukyuan people", "I love China" and "I love Ryukyu" are engraved on the right and left sides of the statue respectively as a tribute to his connection with the people of the island and the people of Japan despite the turbulent political atmosphere of his times.

The tomb is located on Onna Hill facing the East China Sea on the outskirts of Onna Village in the Kunigami District near Naha, Okinawa Prefecture.[106]

Published works

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fang Chih.
  • The following is an incomplete list of the works of Fang Chih
  • Fang, Chih (10 November 1934). Min-Tsu Wen-Hua Yu Min-Tsu Ssu-Hsiang: Wen-Hua Chien-She (National Culture and National Thought: Cultural Reconstruction).
  • Fang, Chih (May 1936). Zhongguo jiaoyu dianying xiehui diwujie nianhui tekan 中國教育電影協會第五屆年會特刊 (Proceedings of the Fifth Annual Meeting of the National Educational Cinematographic Society of China). Nanjing: National Educational Cinematographic Society of China.
  • Fang, Chih (1967). "Ryukyu is the Land of Ryukyu Islanders". 中美月刊. 12 (9) (Digital, 8 June 2010 ed.). New Taipei: Sino-American Cultural and Economic Association – via University of Minnesota.
  • Fang, Chih (1969). The Content and Use of Chinese Local History. Salt Lake City: World Conference on Records and Genealogical Seminar, Area H-6, Salt Lake City: Genealogical Society of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
  • Fang, Chih (November 1984). "Li Guangyi Released From Prison". Cheng Ming. p. 10.
  • Fang, Chih (May 1986). Wǒ Shēng Zhī Lǚ 我生之旅 滄海叢刊: 傳記 (My Journey) (Digital, 2 May 2007 ed.). New Taipei: 東大圖書股份有限公司 (Eastern Book Company). p. 306. ISBN 9789578539228 – via University of Michigan.
Preceded by
?
 KMT Chairman of Fujian Province[1]
1927–1929 		Succeeded by
?
Preceded by
?
 KMT Chairman of Anhui Province[1]
1927–1929 		Succeeded by
?
Preceded by
?
 KMT Chairman of Qingdao[1]
1927–1929 		Succeeded by
Preceded by
?
 Acting Minister of Information of the Republic of China[1]
1930–1937 		Succeeded by
?
Preceded by
?
 Commissioner of Education for Anhui Province and Hubei Province[1]
1938–1939 		Succeeded by
?
Preceded by
Position created
 Chairman of the Transitional National Government Committee of the Ministry of Education[1]
1940–1940 		Succeeded by
Position ended
Preceded by
?
 KMT Chairman of Chongqing[1]
1941–1945 		Succeeded by
?
Preceded by KMT Chairman of Shanghai[1]
1946–25 May 1949 		Succeeded by
Shanghai Under Communist Control
Chen Yi
Preceded by Secretary General & Acting Governor of Fujian Province
and
KMT Chairman of Fujian Province[1]
May 1949–November 1949 		Succeeded by
Preceded by
Organization created
 Secretary General of the Free China Relief Association[1][4][5]
1949–1972 		Succeeded by
Preceded by V President & Managing Director of the Free China Relief Association[1]
1972–1988 		Succeeded by
?
Preceded by
Organization Created
 President of the Sino-Ryukyuan Cultural and Economic Association[1][6]
1958–1988 		Succeeded by
Preceded by
Organization created
 Founder and Trustee of the Sino-Laotian Friendship Society
27 August 1959–? 		Succeeded by
?
Preceded by
Position created
 Secretary General of the Chinese National Committee for World Refugee Year[108]
1960–1960 		Succeeded by
Position ended
Preceded by
Various
 National Policy Advisor to President[1]
?–1988 		Succeeded by
Various
Preceded by
Position created
 Vice President of the Free China Relief Association[104]
1988–1989 		Succeeded by
?

Notes

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  1. ^ Jiang is the Hanyu Pinyin spelling for Chiang.

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Xing, Zheng Yuan; Xin, Wen Ju (1988). Republic of China 1987 A Reference Book. Taipei: United Pacific International – via Google Books. Fang Chih, X; V. Pres. & Mng. Dir., FCRA; Nat. Policy Adv. to the Pres.; Mem., CAC, KMT; Mem., NA; Mem., Presidium, NA; Pres., Sino-Ryukyuan Cul. & Econ. Assn.; b. Anhwei 1899; m. Fang, Ih-che; educ. Grad., Tokyo U. of Arts & Sc.; Chmn., Prov. KMT Hqs. in Fukien, Anhwei, &Tsingtao 27-29 & Acting Min. of Info., KMT 30-37; Comr. of Educ., Anhwer Prov. Govt. 38-39; Chmn., Tng. Cttee., MOE 40; Chmn., Chungking KMT Hqs. 41-45; Chmn., Shanghai KMT Hqs. 47-49; Sec. Gen. & Acting Gov. of Fukien Prov. Govt. 49; Sec. Gen., FCRA 49-72.
  2. ^ a b Consul Cabot (24 April 1949). "The Consul General at Shanghai (Cabot) to the Secretary of State, From Foreign Relations of the United States, 1949 Volume VIII, The Far East: China, Document 321". history.state.gov. US Department of State. Retrieved 14 October 2015. Vernacular press reports Shanghai Kmt Chief Fang Chih arrived Taiwan. China Press reports yesterday meeting of 150 Legislative Yuan members how at Shanghai reached decision that their group will leave Shanghai within 3 days for Taiwan, Canton and Kweilin. Hong Kong 23d Reuters despatch reports heavy air arrivals Hong Kong and Canton of rich Shanghai merchants with service between Shanghai and Canton said increased to 30 planes daily.
  3. ^ Cahoon, Ben. "China Provinces and Administrative Divisions". worldstatesmen.org. World Statesmen. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  4. ^ a b Yang, Ming-che (1 February 1972). Mandate to the National Assembly. Taipei: Taiwan Today, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 10 votes—Fang Chih, secretary-general and managing director, Free China Relief Association, and adviser to the President. Chen Shao-ping.
  5. ^ a b c Ryukyus Today. Ryukyu Islands (United States Civil Administration, 1950-1972). 1972.
  6. ^ a b Asian Outlook. Vol. 18 (Digital, 18 Jun 2010 ed.). Taipei: Asian Peoples' Anti-Communist League. 1983 – via Indiana University. Fang Chuh, president of the Sino-Ryukyu Cultural and Economic Association and Chu Chak-hay, vice chairman of the Overseas Chinese Affairs Commission... Fang Chuh, led a Chinese delegation to congratulate Nishime last year
  7. ^ Adjutant-General's Office. Civil Administration of the Ryukyu Islands. Naha: United States Army Adjutant General's Corps – via Google Books. Fang Chih, president, Sino-Ryukyan Cultural and Economic Association, 15 May 66
  8. ^ a b Foreign Broadcast Information Service (1988). Daily Report: People's Republic of China, Issues 191-200 (Digital, 2 March 2007 ed.). National Technical Information Service – via University of Michigan.
  9. ^ "Tongcheng School". chinaculture.org. China Culture. Archived from the original on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 14 October 2015. The Tongcheng School is the most distinguished among the mid-Qing Dynasty schools of literature. Its representative writers include Fang Bao, Liu Dakui and Yao Nai, who are all natives of Tongcheng County in Anhui Province, hence the name Tongcheng School.
  10. ^ "Tongcheng School of Literature". Anhui China Daily. 11 July 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2015. Fang Bao (1668-1749) carried on the tradition of Gui Youguang's works and made Yi Fa (Yi refers to the central ideas of an article
  11. ^ "桐城会宫方氏". fangshiwang.com. Fangshi Wang. 6 September 2010. Retrieved 11 November 2015. 方荃，字培卿。清末举人，贵州铜仁镇远兴义知府。方治(1893——1989)，字希孔，荃从子。方治2岁丧父，随母张氏就养于外婆家。从小读蒙学，奋发向上。后入安徽省立第一中学，毕业后负笈东渡日本，考入东京高等师范。毕业后，该校升格为文理科大学，他又留校研读2年。民国16年(1927年)，学成回国，从事国民党军内政治、党务和教育工作。北伐期间，他奔走于鄂、赣、湘、闽之间。蒋介石赏识他的才能，特召见奖拔，先后任国民党独立第四师政治部主任，福建、安徽、青岛、南京等省、市党部委员，国民党中央执行委员、宣传部副部长、代理部长等职。抗日战争期间，国民党政府逃往重庆，方治受命任安徽省政府委员兼教育厅长。嗣后由皖进渝，任教育部训导委员会主任委员、重庆市国民党党部主任委员。抗日战争胜利后，民国35年任国民党上海市党部主任委员，同年任国民党代表大会代表。民国38年解放军渡江，进军上海，他和汤恩伯登舰去台湾。方治去台后，历任国民党国策顾问，'中国大陆灾胞救济总会'总干事长、秘书长、副理事长等职。在台期间，常以'救济会'的名义游说于香港、越南、东南亚各地及泰国和中国接壤的边陲地区，进行反共宣传，策划反共活动。1953年抗美援朝战争中，方治又亲往南朝鲜，威逼、引诱、强迫中国人民志愿军一部分被俘人员去台湾。1989年，方治卒于台湾，其骨灰葬在日本的琉球岛上。
  12. ^ a b 汪, 军. "我的族兄汪少伦". aqdzb.aqnews.com.cn. 民国版《中国之路》封面. Retrieved 6 November 2015. 多年前金杏村老人在世时，和我聊起桐城籍国民党官僚方治，此人曾担任过国民党中宣部代理部长，娶的老婆是日本人，两个儿子一个叫方光龙，一个叫方光虎，无论是相貌还是读书，特别优秀，给金杏村老人留下了深刻的印象。2004年我们高林汪氏开始修谱，推举我任主编，一次我翻阅资料，见有一户人家几个子女都是清一色的留美医科博士，且名字都挺欧化，非常惊讶，再一看，原来他们都是汪少伦子女。看来，身为教育家的汪少伦教子有方。不管是方治也好，汪少伦也好，章伯钧也好，桐城人教育子女确实有一套功夫。
  13. ^ "第一节 人物传". 90 Songyang County Chronicle. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 11 November 2015. 史迁(1902——1943)，原名谦，字益吾，今破罡乡人。史迁早失父母，由兄嫂抚养。自幼爱读书，在小学时，即能作文章。少长，怀有大志，认为中国社会必须彻底改革，将来建设工业最为重要。民国13年(1924年)，毕业于安徽省立芜湖甲种工业学校。次年春，与王步文、童长荣、余大化、房斌等东渡日本，考入东京铁道专门学校。民国15年，在东京加入中国共产党。在此期间，他与王步文等同留日学生中的"西巢鸭派"(即"西山会议派")方治、"青年会派"中的右派汪精卫作坚决斗争。
  14. ^ Esherick, Joseph W.; Wei, George C.X. (2013). "5: The New Policies In Hubei". China: How the Empire Fell. Routledge. p. 125. ISBN 978-1134612154.
  15. ^ Chang, Hsu-Hsin; Myers, Ramon Hawley (1993). The Storm Clouds Clear Over China: The Memoir of Ch'en Li-fu, 1900-1993. Stanford, California: Hoover Press. pp. 57–58. ISBN 0817992731. My memory and the available records provide the following leaders responsible for the Kuomintang party purge in different locals: Tseng Yang-fu and Lai Lien in Kwangtung Province; Hsiao Cheng, Cheng I, Hsu Chao-ti, and Hu Chien-chung in Chekiang Province; Yang Hu, Wu K'ai-hsien and Wang Yen-sung in Shanghai; Ch'eng T'ien-fang, Lo Shih-shih, and Tuan Hsi-p'eng in Kiangsi Province; Shao Hua and Fang Chi in Anhwei Province; and Yeh Hsiu-feng in Kiangsu Province
  16. ^ 刘敬坤．方治其人[J]．民国春秋，1994（2）：42－46
  17. ^ "No Blue Shirts; No List, Its All Wrong Says Fang" (Press release). Shanghai: Shanghai Evening Post and Mercury. 21 July 1933 – via Shanghai Municipal Police Files, D-4685.
  18. ^ Wakeman, Frederic E. (2003). Spymaster: Dai Li and the Chinese Secret Service. University of California Press. p. 85. ISBN 0520928768.
  19. ^ Barnouin, Barbara; Yu, Changgen (206). Zhou Enlai: A Political Life. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong. p. 46. ISBN 9629962802.
  20. ^ Barnouin, Barbara; Yu, Changgen (206). Zhou Enlai: A Political Life. Hong Kong: Chinese University of Hong Kong. p. 48. ISBN 9629962802.
  21. ^ a b Hsüan, Ch'uan Pu (1947). China Handbook (Digitized 6 October 2009 ed.). China Publishing Company. p. 651 – via University of Michigan.
  22. ^ North, Robert Carver (1954). Kuomintang and Chinese Communist Elites. Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. 106–109. ISBN 0804715734.
  23. ^ Meirion, Harries; Susie, Harries (1991). Soldiers of the Sun: The Rise and Fall of the Imperial Japanese Army, 1868-1945 (illustrated ed.). London: William Heinemann. ISBN 0434313521.
  24. ^ Morton, William Finch (1980). Tanaka Giichi and Japan's China Policy. New York City: St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312785003. Tanaka Giichi and Japan's China Policy.
  25. ^ Swint, Kerwin (2011). The King Whisperers: Power Behind the Throne from Rasputin to Rove. New York: Union Square Press. ISBN 978-1-4027-7201-6.
  26. ^ a b Dryburgh, Marjorie (2013). North China and Japanese Expansion 1933-1937: Regional Power and the National Interest. London: Routledge. pp. 180–185. ISBN 978-1136836497.
  27. ^ "Japan-China Joint History Research Report" (PDF). mofa.go.jp. Ministry of Foreign Affairs. 2011. p. 117. Retrieved 30 November 2016.
  28. ^ 胡適日記全集（第七冊），第286-287頁載有一則剪報，無報名及日期
  29. ^ 湖南省志（30）人物志：下册，湖南人民出版社，第345-346页
  30. ^ 傳記文學88（1-6），傳記文學雜誌社，2006年，第127页
  31. ^ 张品兴、刘佑生，現代中国政界要人传略大全，中国广播电視出版社，1993年，第772页
  32. ^ 车吉心，民國軼事9，泰山出版社，2004年
  33. ^ Powell, J.W. (1935). "The China Monthly Review: Who's Who In China, Motion Picture Conference Speaker Says Film Should Be Instructive". J.W. Powell. p. 300. Retrieved 11 November 2015. A report on the work of the Film Direction and Guidance C: mittee during the past year was made by Fang Chih, Secretary of the Central Party Publicity Committee. He said that in order to supply the motion-picture companies with a central theme for their pictures, the Central Publicity Committee has decided upon using the New Life Movement as a suitable subject. The various students have been instructed to plan their pictures so that the national virtues of propriety, righteousness, honesty and honor will thereby be revived and promoted
  34. ^ "美国为什么不轰炸日本皇宫". People's Daily. 21 March 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2015. 1938年5月19日深夜，中国空军轰炸机中队2架美制国马丁-B10（即马丁-139WC 型的外销型号）从宁波机场起飞，于次日凌晨2时许飞抵长崎，然后依次飞往福冈、久留米、佐贺、佐世保等其它九州城市，沿途投下的却并不是炸弹，而是——传单，这些传单是由中央宣传部副部长方治及其日裔夫人、军委会政治部第三厅厅长郭沫若和日本反战作家鹿地亘撰写和翻译，包括《告日本国民书》、《告日本工人书》、《告日本农民大众书》、《告日本士兵书》、《告日本全体劳动者书》、《告日本工商者书》等好几种，还有日本反战同盟编写的《反战同盟告日本士兵书》、《一桩真实事》两种，总数达百万份之多。2架轰炸机在九州上空飞行约两小时后返航，于8时45分在南昌机场降落，加油后再飞返汉口，人机均无损失。
  35. ^ Groot, Gerry (2004). Managing Transitions: The Chinese Communist Party, United Front Work, Corporatism and Hegemony. Routledge. p. 42. doi:10.4324/9780203502945. ISBN 1135952930. OCLC 54494511. An infamous example of such GMD disruption was the Jiaochangkou incident of February 10. The PCC Promotion Association, together with representatives from the NCA, the National Salvation Association and the Sanmin zhuyi Comrades Association held a meeting in Chongqing attended by up to ten thousand people. Guomindang agents attacked many present, most notably the radicals Guo Moruo, Li Gongpu, Zhang Naiqi, and Shi Fuliang.
  36. ^ Huang Jianxin (2009). 建国大业 [The Founding of a Republic] (in Chinese). P.R.C.: China Film Group Corporation. Retrieved 8 June 2016.
  37. ^ Sheng, Michael M. (1997). Battling Western Imperialism: Mao, Stalin, and the United States. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691016356 – via Google Books. People tend to forget this, especially when the situation quiets down a little. We forgot this in 1–9 February; but, we remembered this again after the Jiaochangkuo Incident...
  38. ^ O'Brien, Neil (2004). American Editor in Early Revolutionary China: John William Powell and the China Weekly/Monthly Review. Routledge. p. 26. ISBN 1135945721 – via Google Books. In Kunming, on July 11, 1946, lower level officers assassinated Li Gongpu, a Yunnan University professor and prominent member of the Democratic League's Central Committee. Li had been shot through the abdomen as he left a theater with his wife. Immediately, newspapers began speculating that this was the start of a series of planned political assassinations...Four days later, a second important League member, Wen Yidou, a popular university literature professor and well known poet, was gunned down as he returned from a memorial service for Li Gongpu. Wen and his son had just finished listening to Li's wife deliver a eulogy for her murdered husband when they were hit by a fusillade of bullets outside the memorial building...
  39. ^ Jaffe, Philip J. (1947). Amerasia. Indiana University. Wu is a bitter rival of the ex-Commissioner, Wu Shao-hsu, who now heads the Shanghai Sai Min Chu I Youth Corps, and both these men are rivals of still another "CC" Clique leader, Fang Chih, who recently replaced Wu Shao-hsu as head of the Shanghai headquarters of the Kuomintang.
  40. ^ Camus, Dominique. "'Paris of the Orient' The Shanghai French Concession (1849-1946)". medicographia.com. Medicographia. Archived from the original on 25 October 2015. Retrieved 14 October 2015.
  41. ^ "方治其人" (PDF). jds.cass.cn. 中国社会科学院近代史研究所. 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 November 2015. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  42. ^ Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. (1997). "The June Peace Marches". Student Protests in Twentieth-century China: The View from Shanghai (Illustrated ed.). Stanford University Press. pp. 253–263. ISBN 0804731667 – via Google Books.
  43. ^ Shanghai Population - October 1946 (PDF). Shanghai, ROC: Civil Affairs Department of the Shanghai Municipal Government. p. 1. 3,766,109
  44. ^ Yeung, Yue-man (1996). Shanghai: Transformation and Modernization Under China's Open Policy (Illustrated ed.). Chinese University Press. p. 401. ISBN 9622016677 – via Google Books.
  45. ^ Xue, Charlie Q.L. (2005). Building A Revolution: Chinese Architecture Since 1980. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. p. 57. ISBN 9622097448 – via Google Books.
  46. ^ Karatas, Muhammed (2010). Sustainable Economic Development and the Influence of Information Technologies: Dynamics of Knowledge Society Transformation: Dynamics of Knowledge Society Transformation: Advances in Electronic Government, Digital Divide, and Regional Development. IGI Global. p. 31. ISBN 978-1615207107.
  47. ^ Ambassador JL Stuart (18 April 1947). "The Ambassador in China (Stuart) to the Secretary of State, From Foreign Relations of the United States 1947 Volume VII, The Far East: China [Document 85]". history.state.gov. US Department of State. Retrieved 14 October 2015. The standing committee of the Kuomintang CEC at the suggestion of President Chiang, approved the following list of members of the Political Council of the Kuomintang: Chang Jen-chieh, Yen Hsi-shan, Ho Ying-chin, Chen Chi-tang, Kan Nai-kwang, Tseng Yang-fu, Ku Cheng-ting, Lu Chung-lin, Li Yu-ying, Po Wen-wei, Cheng Chien, Hsu Yung-chang, Li Ching-chai, Yu Ching-tang, Fang Chih, Yuan Shou-chien, Feng Yu-hsiang, Hsiung Ke-wu, Li Tsung-jen, Chu Shao-liang, Hsu Kan, Peng Hsueh-pei, Chi Shih-ying, Cheng Yen-feng. Secretary General Chen Li-fu.
  48. ^ Hershatter, Gail (1997). Dangerous Pleasures: Prostitution and Modernity in Twentieth-century Shanghai (illustrated, reprint ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 302. ISBN 0520204387. Shanghai 1947 dancehalls banned.
  49. ^ Scott, Adolphe Clarence (1982). Actors are Madmen: Notebook of a Theatregoer in China (illustrated ed.). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. p. 71. ISBN 029908860X.
  50. ^ "China: For the dancing girls "only death"". The Daily Telegraph. 8 (46). Sydney: 28. 28 September 1947. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  51. ^ "China: Off with the Dance". Time. New York. 22 September 1947. The deadline remained unchanged. Said Fang Chih, Kuomintang leader: 'I think no patriotic man or woman wants to embrace each other under soft lights ... Dancing girls could be trained to acquire useful talents in reconstructing the country and wiping out bandits.'
  52. ^ Le Sueur, James D. (2003). The Decolonization Reader. Abingdon: Psychology Press. pp. 389–390. ISBN 0415231175.
  53. ^ "Suppress-Reds rally in Shanghai". eresources.nlb.gov.sg/. The Singapore Free Press. 6 August 1948. Retrieved 8 January 2016. A large rebel suppression propaganda rally was held in Shanghai this week attended by many civil leaders and Government officials. Speeches were made by the Mayor, K.C. Wu, the Director of the Shanghai Kuomintang Headquarters Fang Chih, and the chairman of the City Council, Pan Kung-chan. Mr. Pan said the position of China in the community of nations had deteriorated considerable, mainly because of the Communist rebellion of the past three years. He pointed out that what the Reds had done was entirely against the national interests. The war, Mr. Pan said, was forced upon the Government because the Government wanted to preserve national independence and unity. Mr. Pan called for all-out support by the people of the Government's war effort. Mayor Wu pointed out that the Communists were plotting intrigues with the International, and urged all citizens to contribute their share either in money or in strength towards the cause of rebel suppression.
  54. ^ Lynch, Michael (2010). The Chinese Civil War 1945-49. Osprey Publishing. p. 91. ISBN 9781841766713.[permanent dead link‍]
  55. ^ a b c "Organized Peace Move In China". The Townsville Daily Bulletin. Brisbane: A.A.P. Reuters. 8 January 1949. Retrieved 9 March 2016 – via National Library of Australia.
  56. ^ "Organised Peace Move In China: Strong Civic Effort Backed By Generals". The Townsville Daily Bulletin. 70: 1. 8 January 1949. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  57. ^ "Communists Launch Big Offensive: Drive on Defenders of Nanking Area". The Age (29, 326). Melbourne: 1. 8 January 1949.
  58. ^ "New Offensive Opened By Reds In China War". The Tweed Daily. 36 (7). Murwillimbah: 1. 8 January 1949. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  59. ^ Kushner, Barak (2015). Men to Devils, Devils to Men: Japanese War Crimes and Chinese Justice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0674728912.
  60. ^ "蒋介石拟建10万"中日义勇军"反攻大陆". news.qq.com. Tencent. 3 July 2013. Archived from the original on 21 August 2016. Retrieved 8 July 2016. 3月份，蒋氏改派朱世明为驻日代表团团长，开始着手对日工作；4月份，又命方治等人着手开展对日研究；5月份，又派有留日背景的曹士瀓任驻日代表团军事组组长。 7月份，曹士瀓拜访了住院中的冈村宁次，并交付国民党政府公函，称： "目前大陆上，国军各地战斗均不如意，日日相继败北。确保内地四川、云南、贵州三省与广西地区以策持久，而让长江下游、南京、上海江南地区无力与要员后退到台湾（原文如此），以图重新整编。因此，关于再整编方面，希望日本旧军人同志惠予协助。" 冈村欣然受命。
  61. ^ Jarman, Robert L. (1997). Taiwan: 1945-1949, Volume 8 of Taiwan: Political and Economic Reports, 1861-1960. Archive Editions. p. 510. ISBN 1852079452. were among the host of refugees who swarmed over to Formosa from Shanghai in the last week of April. They include Li Hsu-cheng, President of the Central Police School; Yu Hsu-ping, former Director of the Shanghai Police Bureau; Fang Chih, Chairman of the Shanghai Municipal Kuomintang Headquarters, who came to see K.C. Wu...
  62. ^ Jarman, Robert L. (1997). Taiwan: 1945-1949, Volume 8 of Taiwan: Political and Economic Reports, 1861-1960. Archive Editions. p. 396. ISBN 1852079452. Government, he proceeded to Pingtung and Takao on 14th April. It is understood that from Pingtung he will fly to Amoy. There has been considerable speculation over the purpose of Dr. Soong's visit. The fact that Dr. C.K. Yen had several interviews with...North China members of the Control Yuan and industrial leaders from North China have also arrived in Formosa. General Yen Hsi-shan, the Governor of Shansi Province, is expected to come to Formosa shortly for retirement, having abandoned all hope of saving his Province from the Communists. Chen Hsueh-ping, former Director of the Youth Department of Kuomintang Headquarters and Fang Chih, Chairman of the Shanghai Municipal Kuomintang Headquarters are expected here shortly. A report in the Shanghai press that General Chen Yi, the first Governor of Formosa after the Restoration, was to return to this island has been denied. On 24 April, however, a veritable invasion of Government officials, Military Officers and members of the Legislative and Control Yuan commenced, some 80 planes arriving at Taipeh in one day. It is expected that this influx will increase as the situation in Shanghai deteriorates.
  63. ^ Schuman, Julian (2016). China: An Uncensored Look. New York: Open Road Media. ISBN 978-1504025294.
  64. ^ "Reds Near Last Shanghai Lines". dailypress.net. The Escanaba Daily Press. 24 May 1949. Retrieved 8 January 2016. Reds Near Last Shanghai Lines; (City Tottering Point from Page One) ... The Communists smashed almost into Shanghai today. At nightfall evidence mounted that Nationalist forces were on the verge of abandoning the city. The hardest Red blows were directed at the southwestern section, where the Red drive pulled up at the famed 35 mile wooden fence, a smash that carried the Reds through Shanghai's defenses in some spots. Vessels were sunk deliberately in the Whangpoo, Shanghai's shipping lifeline. The channel to the Yangtze was blocked, a move likely to be made as a last resort before the Nationalists pulled out. Troops in large numbers seemed to be heading for Woosung, logical point to board outward bound ships. Wooden Fence Holds Shanghai was rife with rumors. One said the Reds were in the old French concession. But at 4 pm I visited the defenses on Hungjao road, other city entrances along the railroad and Lunghwa airfield. The whole arc was a scene of crowded confusion. But Nationalist defenses, while battered, had not broken. The Reds definitely were not inside Shanghai. Some Nationalist troops were moving back. Most of them were supply units which move to and fro constantly. From these forward areas few units were leaving... riflemen moved up along with armored vehicles. The fact the Communists reached the wooden fence means that they got through most of Shanghai's southwestern defenses. But at that point their attack seems to have bogged down and the Reds fell back. As a result they are still only part of the way through the hard crust of the southwestern defenses. They might be able to break through with another punch unless the Nationalists can counterattack. Shipping Blocked, Three small tankers in the Whangpoo. just off The Bund, were sunk by Nationalists to block off part of the channel and a section of the docks. One of two old riverboats was sunk purposely in the same area. Every building in the city flew Nationalist flags. Garrison officials said this was a "spontaneous" celebration of the people of the "gallant" defense of Shanghai. It was believed widely that the police circulated through the city last night and ordered all to display the Nationalist colors before today's victory parade. Fang Chih, secretary general of the garrison political council, said Shanghai's defenders would hold out to the end. He said the city would be defended street by street if necessary, even if it meant destruction of Shanghai, a city of 5,000,000. Fang said the Reds had lost 60,000 dead and wounded; 4.500 prisoners and 500 machine guns in besieging Shanghai. The Reds have suffered five casualties for every one sustained by the Nationalists, he said. (Chinese war figures are often exaggerated). (Communist radio in Peiping broadcast that a bulletin of "great importance" will be announced tomorrow. There was no hint as to the contents of the bulletin.) The Communist radio last night said Red positions on the east bank of the Whangpoo at Shanghai were so strong that river traffic was blocked.
  65. ^ "Shanghai Captured By Communist Army: Red Army Now In French Area". Goulburn Evening Post: 5. 25 May 1949. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  66. ^ Consul Cabot (25 May 1949). "The Consul General at Shanghai (Cabot) to the Secretary of State, From Foreign Relations of the United States, 1949 Volume VIII, The Far East: China, Document 406". history.state.gov. US Department of State. Retrieved 14 October 2015. Twenty-seven Chinese Air Force planes left Kiangwan southward this morning, including according to press General Chou Tse-jou. Presumably some of remaining Nationalist VIPs, such as Kmt C–C leaders Lei Chen, Fang Chih and Ku Chen-kang, on board.
  67. ^ "日本投降不是因美投原子弹". shu4.com. shu4. 10 February 2016. Retrieved 8 June 2016. 8月22日，雷震、方治到厦门协助汤恩伯防守金门、厦门。雷震青年时代曾在日本留学九年，毕业于日本东京帝国大学，日文很棒。晚上，根本博、吉川源三来看雷震，谈得甚久，吉川源三告诉雷，他曾到过金门岛，并草拟了一份金门防守计划，汤恩伯及其他将领对这个计划评价甚高。[permanent dead link‍]
  68. ^ "揭秘：蒋介石是如何让日本战犯帮其打内战的". lcxun.com. lcxun. 13 February 2016. Archived from the original on 6 August 2016. Retrieved 8 June 2016. 汤恩伯还说："根本博、吉川源三到台后被陈诚安置在北投警察署招待所住了很长时间，那里条件甚差，既无事可做，又无人关照他们，他们意见甚大，见到军政要员就怨声载道。蒋总裁听说后，很同情他们，将他们交给我，要我好好招待他们，并要我认真倾听他们的意见，发挥他们的军事专长。对这几个日本人，我只有按蒋总裁的指示办。" 雷、方二人不知此事的内情，没有表示任何意见。日本战犯帮助制定金厦防卫方案, 此后，根本博、吉川源三等七人跟随汤恩伯到了厦门、金门，还帮助汤恩伯制定了厦门、金门的防卫计划。
  69. ^ China Handbook 1956-57. Taipei: China Publishing Company. 1956. p. 221 – via Cornell University.
  70. ^ Gülstorff, Torben (February 2015). Cold War International History Project, Working Paper #75, Warming Up a Cooling War: The CIAs and Other Global Anti-Communist Networks During the Era of Detente (PDF) (Report). pp. 34–35. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 November 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2015 – via Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. The leaders of the APACL branches were truly well connected with politicians and members of the governments of their respective states, which granted many of their organizations a solid financial basis. Ku Cheng-Kang, former general and minister, Member of Parliament, chairman of the National Assembly, and senior leader of the KMT in Taiwan, was joined by Park Chung-hee, president of South Korea from 1961 to 1979, and Choi Doo-sun, prime minister of South Korea from 1963 to 1964, Nguyễn Tiến Hỳ, secretary general of the conservative Vietnamese party Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng, Tsai Chang, external minister on the Ryuku Islands, and Leonel Borralho, a senator in Macao, just to mention some of the organizations leaders. Consequently, governments—especially the ones in Taiwan and South Korea—were important 'investors' of the APACL network. Furthermore, the KMT—and indirectly the CIA as well—had been an important supporter of the network since its beginning. In the mid-1950s, CIA drug trafficking for the KMT in Burma was uncovered by media. The KMT and the CIA had sold drugs to earn money for the funding of the guerrilla war the KMT fought against the People's Republic of China. In the aftermath of this exposure, the CIA changed the 'technical implementation' of the drug trafficking. In 1954, the Taiwanese organization Free China Relief Association was founded to handle future transports, putting the KMT in charge. The latter made the organization a member of the APACL, based in the same office rooms as the Taiwanese APACL organization, and redirected some of the drugtrafficking profits into the network. This direct linkage of the APACL with the unconventional warfare of the KMT, its high dependence on Taiwan and South Korea—two countries on constant red alert for a Communist attack -- caused a radicalization of the APACL anticommunism to a level, which was almost incomparable to the ones of the CIAS and the CIADC
  71. ^ "China's worst floods". The Argus. Melbourne: 2. 14 August 1954. Retrieved 19 December 2019.
  72. ^ "11 Red Junks And Gunboats Sunk in Raids". Oshkosh Daily Northwestern. Taipeh. 28 September 1954. p. 2. Retrieved 11 November 2015. Taipeh, Formosa U.P.)--Chinese Nationalist P47 Thunderbolts flying through heavy typhoon weather sank 11 Communist junks and gunboats and damaged scores more today in raids off the coast of Fukien Province near Amoy Island. Nationalist air force headquarters said the Reds apparently were massing their junk fleets under the cover of the typhoon. The Nationalist navy began a stepped-up patrol action off the coast in an attempt to discover other concentrations of Communist vessels. A Nationalist relief official said the Communist shelling of Quemoy Island has caused the death of 27 Civilians and rendered 1,465 Civilians homeless. Fang Chih, Secretary
  73. ^ "Survey of China Mainland Press, Issues 643-660". U.S. Consulate General in Hong Kong. 1953. p. 30. Retrieved 16 October 2015. Fang Chih, accompanied by the American camp commandant, visited each compound and made speeches to the P.O.W.s, openly threatening them not to demand repatriation but to go to Taiwan. The 'delegation' also forcibly distributed so-called 'comfort articles' to the captured Chinese People's Volunteers.
  74. ^ MacLeod, Lijia (28 June 2000). "China's Korean War POWs find you can't go home again". Japan Times. Retrieved 8 January 2016. Yet these were the patriots. Zhang and the rest of the aging chorus in Wuhan last month were among some 6,000 captured Chinese soldiers who insisted on returning home; over 14,000 fellow POWs preferred exile in Taiwan. The POW dilemma deadlocked peace negotiations that began in July 1951. The protagonists finally signed an armistice in July 1953, though a peace treaty still eludes the divided peninsula.
  75. ^ Halpin, Dennis P. (16 November 2015). "Could North Korea again save Taiwan?". nknews.org. NK News. Retrieved 17 November 2015. Truman's successor, Dwight Eisenhower, went even further. Not only did he fulfill the pledge "I shall go to Korea" to help end the conflict there but his administration resisted Chinese pressure in armistice negotiations by allowing two-thirds of the 21,000 Chinese POWs to resettle in Taiwan rather than being forcibly repatriated to mainland China. A U.S. mutual defense treaty with Taiwan was signed in 1954 and Congress expressed its solidarity in defending Taiwan by passing the Formosa Resolution in 1955. After provoking a further crisis with the shelling of the offshore islands of Kinmen and Matsu which figured prominently in a Kennedy-Nixon presidential debate in 1960, Mao backed off, turning inward to the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution. The North Korean-provoked war had indeed saved Taiwan.
  76. ^ Harrison, Lieutenant Colonel William T. "Military Armistice in Korea: A Case Study for Strategic Leaders". Archived from the original on 1 August 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2015.
  77. ^ "Defecting Chinese Pilot Flies MIG-19 to Taiwan". The New York Times. 14 November 1983. Retrieved 23 November 2015. Taipei, Taiwan, Monday, Nov. 14— A Chinese Air Force pilot flew a MIG-19 jet fighter to Taiwan today and asked for political asylum, the Defense Ministry reported. He was the second Chinese Air Force pilot to defect this year. The Nationalist Chinese Government on Taiwan has a standing reward of gold worth millions of dollars for any pilot in the Communist Chinese Air Force who defects with his warplane. The amount depends on the type of plane. A Defense Ministry spokesman identified the pilot as Wang Xuechen, 26 years old, but did not give his military rank.
  78. ^ Berger, Carl (1956). An Introduction to Wartime Leaflets. Washington, D.C.: Special Operations Research Office, The American University. p. 74.
  79. ^ Wang, Ann (27 March 2017). "In Taiwan, the legacy of the KMT's Burma retreat". frontiermyanmar.net. Frontier Myanmar. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  80. ^ NICK 锐立 (18 February 2013). "In Mae Salong, Home of the KMT's 'Forgotten' 93rd Division, Watching CCTV". nickandbayley.wordpress.com. Wordpress. Retrieved 24 November 2015. This is a home of the survivors and descendents of the Guomindang's (KMT) 93rd Division, a component of General Li Mi's 15,000-strong 13th Army of Yunnan Province that retreated to the border of British Burma in 1948-9. Initially supported by the CIA and the KMT government in Taiwan, Li proclaimed an independent Shan state after Burma's independence, and dedicated his "Anti-Communist National Salvation Army" to the eventual overthrow of the PRC. He was able to "recruit" local chiefs and thousands of tribesmen into his force, and benefited from the fact that Burma was fighting four other insurgencies, two of them communist, at the time. During the Korean War, his army attempted to invade Yunnan no less than seven times. But as the politics of Southeast Asia became increasingly hostile to western imperialism, it became clear to the US that the KMT's presence there was doing more harm than good for the anti-communist cause. Reluctantly, the Taiwan government repatriated General Li and 7,000 of his troops to Taiwan in 1953. But nearly 10,000 remained. They stayed, living out the rest of the decade in the jungles of eastern Shan state, receiving a dwindling stream of supplies from Taiwan, and fighting the Burmese government's increasingly capable forces. By 1960, the gig was up: Burmese Premier U Nu and Chinese Prime Minister Zhou Enlai negotiated the delineation of their undefined border, and joined their forces in an attempt to annihilate this leftover remnant of the Chinese Civil War.
  81. ^ NICK 锐立 (18 February 2013). "In Mae Salong, Home of the KMT's 'Forgotten' 93rd Division, Watching CCTV". nickandbayley.wordpress.com. Wordpress. Retrieved 24 November 2015. In the subsequent fighting, dubbed the 'Chinese-Burma Border Survey Security Campaign' 中缅边境勘界警卫作战, the 'lost division' escaped annihilation but were pushed out of their sanctuary. Under General Tuan Shiwen, about 4,000 of them turned south. In 1961, they arrived across the Thai border. They were given sanctuary, but on one condition: they had to help Thailand in the north fight its own growing communist insurgencies. The army was not well-supplied. Support from their former government in Taiwan had stopped, and the Thai government was wary to provide them with too much. Meanwhile, the hilltops of Mae Salong, where they settled among the native hill tribes, could not produce nearly as much food as their former home in Burma. So they did what plenty of other Chinese armies under corrupt, unsavory warlords in the 20th Century had done (including Mao's), and started growing opium. Soon, as major players in the trade coming out of the Golden Triangle, the leaders of Mae Salong would contribute much to the boom in worldwide heroin supply (and addiction) in the 1960s and 1970s.
  82. ^ Gray, Dennis D. (7 June 1987). "The Remaining Veterans of China's 'Lost Army' Cling to Old Life Styles in Thailand". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
  83. ^ "Chinese Refugees Stranded In Laos". Tucson Daily Citizen. 4 August 1959. Retrieved 27 January 2016 – via newspapers.com. Some 8,000 Chinese refugees from Red China are now stranded in Laos, the secretary-general of the Free China Relief Assn. reported today. Fang Chih, who recently visited the refugees, said they were tribesmen from mountainous regions of Yunnan Province. He said they fled in rebellion against the Communists' commune system. He reported the refugees are living in sheds or tents in the mountains and are in dire need of food, housing, clothes, medicines, farm tool and seeds.
  84. ^ Scott, Peter Dale (2013). The War Conspiracy: JFK, 9/11, and the Deep Politics of War (Reprint ed.). Skyhorse Publishing. p. 448. ISBN 978-1628735642. On August 27, Oudone Sananikone attended the foundation in Taiwan of a Sino-Laotian friendship society, whose trustees included Ku Cheng-kang and Fang Chih.
  85. ^ a b Taylor, Robert H. (1973). Foreign and domestic consequences of the KMT intervention in Burma, Issue 93 of Data paper. Ithaca: Southeast Asia Program, Dept. of Asian Studies, Cornell University. ISBN 0877270937 – via University of Michigan.
  86. ^ a b Robbins, Christopher (2012). Air America. London: Hachette UK. ISBN 978-1780224497 – via Google Books.
  87. ^ Macao Condemned For Repatriating M'land Refugees. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan). 7 January 1968. Archived from the original on 6 February 2016 – via Taiwan Today. The Free China Relief Association (FCRA) Jan. 1 voiced its indignation at the Macao government for repatriating 12 freedom seekers to the mainland. It demanded that the free world condemn the Macao government for having violated human rights and the International Refugees Agreement to which Portugal is a signatory state. Fang Chih, spokesman and secretary general of FCRA, pointed out that the 12 youths escaped from the mainland to Macao on the eve of Christmas in the hope that the Macao government would, in the spirit of universal love, grant political asylum to them. The Macao government arrested the 12 and returned them to Red China on the ground that they were 'illegal immigrants.' Very probably, said Fang, these 12 youths will be persecuted by the Chinese Communists.
  88. ^ Summary of Proceedings: UNHCR Tuesday, January 12th, 196O (PDF) (Report). United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 12 January 1960. p. 12. Retrieved 24 November 2015. The needs of the Tibetan refugees, most of whom fled their country at the beginning of the World Refugee Year, were brought before the Conference by Mr. Fang Chih (Republic of China) and Mgr. MacCarthy NCWC).
  89. ^ "Summary of Proceedings" (PDF). jdc.org. United Nations. 26 January 1960. Retrieved 27 January 2016. The needs of the Tibetan refugees, most of whom fled their country at the beginning of the World Refugee Year, were brought before the Conference by Mr. Fang Chih (Republic of China) and Mgr. MacCarthy NCWC).
  90. ^ "Summary of Proceedings" (PDF). jdc.org. United Nations. 26 January 1960. Retrieved 27 January 2016. Mr. Fang Chih, Chinese National Committee, and Pastor Stumpf, Hong Kong, presented the needs of the Chinese refugees.
  91. ^ a b "(journal)". Issues & Studies. 8 (7–12). Taipei: Institute of International Relations, Republic of China (Zhonghua min guo guo ji guan xi yan jiu suo). 1972 – via University of California. The Free China Relief Association established an office in Hong Kong in 1950. The office actively ... It has established a refugee camp at Tiu Keng Ling. ... According to the records, well over 310,000 men were benefited by its relief and help.
  92. ^ Tsao, W.Y. (1 May 1960). "Free China Review, Volume 10" (Digital, 12 May 2009 ed.). Free China Review – via University of Michigan. Mr. Fang Chih, secretary-general of the Chinese National Committee for World Refugee Year, reported that the WRY Relief Committee in Geneva has appropriated US$10,000,000 for the relief of the 1,450,000 Chinese refugees in Hongkong. He expressed the hope that the money will be well spent under the joint supervision of the Chinese WRY National Committee, the Government of Hongkong and the United Nations for the relief of Chinese refugees in Hongkong.
  93. ^ Mark Chi-Kwan (2007). The 'Problem of People': British Colonials, Cold War Powers, and the Chinese Refugees in Hong Kong, 1949–62 (PDF) (Report). Royal Holloway, University of London. pp. 10–12. Retrieved 24 March 2016.
  94. ^ Tatlow, Didi Kirsten (29 July 1996). "Hong Kong's 'Little Taiwan' - and Flags - Passing Into History". Retrieved 8 January 2016.
  95. ^ FCRA Relief Work in Hongkong and Macao. Free China Relief Association. 1965. p. 46.
  96. ^ Selya, Roger Mark (2004). Development and Demographic Change in Taiwan (1945 - 1995). World Scientific. p. 332. ISBN 9814483788 – via Google Books.
  97. ^ "This Month In Free China". taiwanreview.nat.gov.tw. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan). 1 October 1976. Archived from the original on 24 November 2015. Retrieved 24 November 2015. Fang Chih, vice president of the Free China Relief Association, turns over relief rations for mainland earthquake victims to the defense departments that arranged delivery from free floating balloons.
  98. ^ "Ryukyuan Leader Urges More Trade With Taiwan". taiwantoday.com. Taiwan Journal 舊資料, Taiwan Today. 26 July 1964. Archived from the original on 19 November 2015. Retrieved 13 October 2015. Ajitomo Ahyshi, vice president of the Ryukyuan-Chinese Cultural and Economic Association, on July 22 called on tire Chinese government and business circles in Taipei to expand trade and strengthen cultural relations with the Ryukyus. Ohyshi made the remarks at a dinner given in his honor by the Sino-Ryukyuan Cultural and Economic Association. He called the attention of Chinese government leaders and businessmen to the fact that there is a possibility of two-way trade between free China and the Ryukyus amounting to more than US$100 million every year.
  99. ^ Wei, Yun-ling; Huang, Maia (5 June 2012). "Taiwanese woman to receive gold medal from Japanese Red Cross Society". taiwanembassy.org. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015. Tsai Hsueh-ni, president of the Sino-Ryukyuan Cultural and Economic Association, said Saturday that she will travel to Japan May 8 to receive the award, which will be conferred by Empress Michiko, honorary president of the association.
  100. ^ "Representative Offices". @llo Expat. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015. Retrieved 13 October 2015.
  101. ^ Yu, Peter Kien-hong; Chow, Emily W; Kao, Shawn S F (2010). International Governance, Regimes, and Globalization: Case Studies from Beijing and Taipei (illustrated ed.). Lexington Books. p. 136. ISBN 978-0739143216. By the end of 2006, Taipei will change the Sino-Ryukyuan Cultural and Economic Association (SRCEA), its private diplomatic representation in Okinawa, into the Naha Branch of the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office in Japan. Naha is the capital of Okinawa Prefecture. Taipei said it has never denied that Okinawa belongs to Japan.
  102. ^ "Sino-Ryukyuan Research Cooperation" (PDF). The Ryukyuanist (11). The International Society for Ryukyuan Studies: 12. 1991. This remarkable Sino-Ryukyuan research cooperation began when a group of Ryukyuan scholars led by the late Professor Katsutaro Shimajiri of Okinawa University visited Taiwan in October 1983. A Taiwan group returned the courtesy by visiting Ryukyu in October 1985. At this meeting of the two groups, it was agreed to hold symposia in Taipei and Naha alternately every other year. The first meeting was convened by three distinguished Chinese scholars such as Fang Chih, Crren Chi-lu and Chang Hsi-che. It has produced an impressive proceedings volume of more than 600 pages containing papers presented at eight panels of the symposium
  103. ^ Fang, Chih (November 1984). "Li Guangyi Released From Prison". Cheng Ming. p. 10. Recently there has been news of the release by Beijing of fairly many political prisoners and 'speech prisoners.' Not to speak of the others, Li Guangyi has already been released. Li Guangyi had been the chief editor of CAIMAO BAO; published in Beijing, and a few years ago had been sentenced to 5 years and thrown in prison. The charge was 'revealing to foreigners important party and state secrets.' At that time some news workers were of the opinion: 'When he associated with foreigners, if they "had a question" he "had an answer," but his answers were on matters of no importance and yet were reckoned as "revealing" something!' Some persons in political circles proposed that Li Guangyi be 'reinstated in his former post' and then be promoted from his post at CAIMAO BAO to the post of chief editor of JINGJI RIBAO. The news makes us rejoice. What the result will be we do not yet know, but it is hoped that after Li Guangyi, all political prisoners, 'speech prisoners', and prisoners who 'revealed secrets,' who have suffered an injustice, will regain their freedom.
  104. ^ a b T'ai-wan Chih Nan (Digitized 31 Jan 2008 ed.). Taipei: China News. 1988. p. 170 – via University of California.
  105. ^ "I.M. Pei Rediscovers China". The New York Times. 6 February 1983. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
  106. ^ a b "琉球之友". ryukyushimpo.jp (in Japanese). Ryukyu Shimpo. 1 December 2008. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015. Retrieved 11 November 2015. 恩納村の高台の木立に大きな墓苑がある。中央には東シナ海を遠く見つめる男性の胸像がありその背後の石碑には大きく琉球之友と記されている。在台湾の民間窓口である中琉文化経済協会初代理事長方治氏の墓苑である。方治氏は世界的に活躍するデザイナー「アナ・スイ」の実の祖父として知られており数年前には彼女自身が恩納村に墓参りに訪れ話題をよんだ。方治氏は台琉交流の旗頭として戦後ながきに渡り沖縄のために農業、産業、文化、人的交流、また台湾への多数の留学生の保証人としての受け入れにご尽力された。石碑には墓苑建立に携わり沖縄の戦後復興に力を注がれた偉大な方々の名前が刻まれている。琉球を熱愛し第二の故郷とした方治氏の墓苑そのものが、その当時の台湾と琉球の篤（あつ）き交流の形を今に伝える。 現在、方治氏の意志を受け継ぎ現任の理事長蔡雪泥女史（７４）が台琉交流のために奔走されている。蔡女史は家政、服飾、美容等の分野で教鞭（きょうべん）をとられ成功を収めていたが４４歳より児童教育事業への転身を決め、台湾で公文式教育の創始者となった。沖縄県第一号終身民間大使である蔡女史は台湾の教育、福祉におけるその豊富な経験を沖縄のために全力で注がれている。
  107. ^ "沖縄の文化には、日本の文化と、中国の文化が、融合している所があります。". Mazba.com (in Japanese). Mazba. 10 April 2011. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 28 October 2015. 恩納村前兼久にある、陵墓の丘にあがってみます。陵墓の丘からは、前兼久の海が見えます。このお墓の上の方に、台湾から来た沖縄を切り開いた先駆者の銅像・顕彰碑があります。方治先生の銅像です。方治先生は、戦後の琉球の経済・教育・文化の発展に尽力した人です。この方が沖縄を開いたのです。具体的には、沖縄の特産物であるパイナップルやバナナの苗をうまく斡旋し、その生産の技術指導や台湾の留学生を受け入れ人的交流などを盛んに行いました。 沖縄と台湾の交流の窓口となった人です。周りをみるととても美しい景色です。山頂部には別荘がそびえています。こうして名を遂げて銅像・顕彰碑を作るとその後の維持・管理、 草を刈る、道をふさぐものを綺麗にするという事は、その後の子孫の仕事になります。子孫がきちんとしてくれないと、草に埋もれてしまうこともあります。
  108. ^ "A summary of important events from March 16 to April 15, 1960". Taiwan Today. Taipei. 1 May 1960. Retrieved 11 April 2016.
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