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Fashion in the Yuan dynasty

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The fashion in the Yuan dynasty of Mongol (1271–1368) showed cultural diversity with the coexistence of various ethnic clothing, such as Mongol clothing, Han clothing and Korean clothing.[1] The Mongol dress was the clothing of elite for both genders.[2]: 82–83  Mongol attire worn in the 13th-14th century was different from the Han clothing from the Tang and Song dynasties.[3] The Yuan dynasty court clothing also allowed the mixed of Mongol and Han style,[4] and the official dress code of the Yuan dynasty also became a mixture of Han and Mongol clothing styles.[5] After the founding of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols strongly influenced the lifestyle and customs of the Han people.[6]: 138 

According to the History of Yuan, "when the Yuan Dynasty was founded, clothing and carriage decorations followed the old customs. Kublai Khan took the customs from the Jin and Song Dynasty to the Han and Tang Dynasty".[7] The casual clothing for men mainly followed the dress code of the Han people and they wore banbi as a casual clothing item.[8] Women dress code were separated into the aristocratic type (which was Mongol clothing) and the common people type (which were Han clothing consisting of ruqun and banbi).[8]

History

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Pre-Yuan dynasty

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It was noted by Li Zhichang in his 1221 visit to Genghis Khan court that the Mongol clothing were made of "hides and fur".[9]: 21  In the Heida shilüe, it was recorded that: "[The Mongols'] robes close to the right and have square collars. In the past they used felt, furs, and leather; nowadays they use ramie, silk, and gold thread. As for colours they use red, purple, violet, and green, and for patterns the sun, moon, dragon, and phoenix. They do not distinguish between upper and lower classes [in their dress]".[9]: 21 [note 1]

Yuan dynasty

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After the founding of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols strongly influenced the lifestyle and customs of the Han people.[6]: 138  According to the History of Yuan, "when the Yuan Dynasty was founded, clothing and carriage decorations followed the old customs. Kublai Khan took the customs from the Jin and Song dynasty to the Han and Tang dynasty".[7] The clothing system of the Yuan dynasty was first codified in under the reign of Emperor Chengzong.[9]: 45  It was only under the reign of Emperor Renzong that sumptuary laws regulated the use of textiles, materials, and patterns instead of regulating the form of clothing.[9]: 45 

Textile and colour

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Textile

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See also: Chinese ornamental gold silk

Prior to the establishment of Yuan dynasty, the Mongols wore clothing made of animal-based raw materials, such as leather, felt, and fur.[9]: 21  Following the establishment of the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols started to wear finer materials, such as plant-based textiles and silk.[9]: 21 

Colour

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Among the Yuan aristocracy, the clothing were distinguished by various of colour, for example, the colour brown had more than 20 different shades of brown.[6]: 138 

Mongol Clothing

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Men's clothing

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Dragon robes

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Main article: Dragon robe

During this period, the Mongols were also strongly influenced by the lifestyle and customs of the Hans, including in their adoption of fenghuang and dragon pattern (motifs which are of Han origins).[6]: 138  Some of the patterns contained gold glittering thread which made the clothing look more luxurious.[6]: 138 

Terlig and jisun

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The Mongol attire was shared by people of different social ranking due to its practicality which contrasted with the dress code of the Han Chinese; as such, Mongol attire was popular.[3] An important and popular robe for male Mongols was the terlig, known as bianxian ao (辫线袄; plait-line coat) or yaoxian ao (腰线袄; waist-thread coat); this coat had decorations at the waist, tight sleeves, and pleats at the lower hem which made it convenient for horse riding and was worn by all social classes.[9]: 49 [10][3]

The most notable terlig is the jisün garment, known as zhisunfu (质孙服) in Chinese. The jisün garment was one of the most important male court garment of the Yuan dynasty; it was worn by the emperors and bestowed from the emperors to officials; it can also be called zhisun (质孙 or 只孙), jixun (济逊), or zhama (诈玛).[3][9]: 63–65  The original jisün was worn by the Mongols prior to the establishment of the Yuan dynasty, but it became more elaborate and systematic in the Yuan dynasty.[9]: 63–65  In the History of Yuan, the jisün is also described as yisefu (一色服, dress in one colour) and were usually found in one colour.[11][10]

Haiqing

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Another distinctive form of male Mongol Yuan court robe is a robe with underarm openings, which is referred as "all- weather" robe by Zhao Feng or Haiqing (海青) in post-Yuan dynasty texts.[9]: 52–54 [note 2] The robe has long sleeves and the underarm opening is on the seam which joins the sleeves to the body of the robe.[2]: 77 

This form of robe is portrayed in the painting Khubilai Khan Hunting by Liu Guandao; in the painting, the Haiqing worn by some of the male attendants or hunters and by Empress Chabi.[9]: 52–54 [2]: 77  The functionality of the underarm openings is not completely clear, but it might have been related to the weather as slipping the arms through the underarms openings could create a sleeveless robe.[9]: 52–54  The wearer could also slipped out his arm out of the underarm openings to allow for a greater ease of movement as depicted by an archer in green Haiqing in the painting Khubilai Khan Hunting.[2]: 77 

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    Man wearing a red Mongol robe with underarm openings. The green under-robe is visible under the red Haiqing. Images from the painting Khubilai Khan Hunting.
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    Male attendant wearing a Mongol robe with underarm openings (Haiqing). His left arm passes through the underarms opening, making the left side sleeveless. Images from the painting Khubilai Khan Hunting.
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    Empress Chabi wearing white Haiqing. Images from the painting Khubilai Khan Hunting.

Dahu / Short-sleeved outer robes

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See also: Dahu (clothing) and Dapho

There were various types of banbi in the Yuan dynasty: straight collar short shan with half-sleeves (直领短衫), a half-sleeved long robe (changpao 长袍) with a cross-collar closing to the right (jiaoling youren 交领右衽), which is specifically called dahu), and square-collar long robe (方领对襟长袍) with half-sleeves.[12] Following pre-Yuan dynasty fashion, the Mongols wore short-sleeved outer robes (dahu) over their long-sleeved robes.[9]: 43, 52 [6]: 139–140 

Dahu was also introduced in the late Goryeo from the Yuan dynasty where it became known as dapho.[13] A derivative of the Mongol dahu of the same name continued to be worn in the succeeding Ming dynasty;[3] the Ming dynasty dahu was also bestowed to the Joseon court.[14][note 3] Similar forms of short-sleeved robes worn over outer robes can also be found in artwork and illustrations of the Ilkhanate and in other countries in the later centuries.

Bijia

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Mongol men also wore a sleeveless and collarless garment like a vest, called bijia (比甲), whose making was attributed to Empress Chabi.[2]: 82–83 [16][9]: 89  The bijia was convenient for mounted combat.[17]

Hairstyle and headware

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Figurine wearing a boli hat, Yuan dynasty.

Mongol men swept their hair into two plaits and would hang them behind their ears in a style called pojia (婆焦).[18]: 241 [9]: 21 

Mongol men wore round or square hats which were made of rattan; and these hats could be surmounted with an ornament.[19] Triangular hats, called maoli, were also worn by Mongol men.[5] Felt hats with upturned brim was the most common form of hat which are typically depicted in the portraits of Genghis Khan, Ögedei Khan, and Kublai Khan.[20]

Mongolian hats were traditionally brimless at the front which offered no protection against the sun.[17] The boli hat (钹笠帽; boli mao) was a popular hat which was worn by the Mongols in Yuan dynasty as it had a wide brim which made it sun-proof and rain-proof; it was worn by emperors, officials and male commoners.[3] The creation of the Mongol hat with a wide brim has been attributed to Empress Chabi.[16][9]: 89  Kublai Khan was delighted with the hat invented by Empress Chabi that he decreed for this type of hat to be popularized.[17] The later Yuan emperors are depicted wearing the boli hats instead of the traditional hats worn in the official portrait of Kublai Khan.[20]

Ornaments and jewelries

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See also: Yunjian

Mongol men often wore earrings.[5]

  • Mongol men clothing
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    Figure of a Mongol man wearing Mongol attire and a boli hat, Yuan dynasty.
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    Yuan emperor Kublai Khan.
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    Yuan Emperor Chengzong.

Women's clothing

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Mongol robe /deel/

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The history of Pre-yuan dynasty Mongol clothing is mainly textual; however, based on textual descriptions from William of Rubruck and others, it appears that the elite Mongol women robe /deel/ had existed prior to the founding of the Yuan dynasty.[9]: 79–81  This robe was exceedingly ample and had long sleeves, and it closed to the side.[9]: 79–81  The ruling class of the Yuan dynasty women did not adopt the Song dynasty-style clothing.[9]: 84–86  The Mongol women in the Yuan dynasty continued to wear the robe that they wore before the fall of the Song dynasty, along with a tall headdress called the boqta hat.[9]: 79–81  That Mongol women robe also appeared to have been worn by the Ilkhanid court noblewomen.[9]: 79–81 

The deel of Mongol women was described as looking similar to the Chinese Taoist garment; it was very wide, was opened in the front, was fastened in three places, was double-breasted, and was cut in the same way as the robe of their male counterpart.[11][9]: 79–81  It was a side closing robe.[9]: 79–81  The Mongol woman's robe /deel/ was long and was one-piece.[2]: 79–82  Its sleeves were wide and tapered at the wrists;[9]: 79–81  i.e. its sleeves were also narrow-sleeved at the wrists.[2]: 79–82 

According to William of Rubruck:

The costume of the [Mongol women] is no different from that of the men except that it is somewhat longer. But on the day after she is married a woman shaves from the middle of her head to her forehead, and she has a tunic as wide as a nun's cowl, and in every respect wider and longer, and open in front, and this they tie on the right side. Now in this matter the Tartars differ from the Turks, for the Turks tie their tunics on the left, but the Tartars always on the right.

— Shea, Mongol Court Dress, Identity Formation, and Global Exchange, page 80-81

John of Plano Carpini also describes that

the clothes of both the [Mongol] men and the women are made in the same style. They do not use capes, cloaks or hoods, but wear tunics of buckram, velvet, or brocade made in the following fashion: they are open from top to bottom and are folded over the breast; they are fastened on the left with one tie, on the right with three, on the left side also they are open as far as the waist.

— Shea, Mongol Court Dress, Identity Formation, and Global Exchange, Page 80-81

In Chinese sources, the Mongol women clothing was described by Zhao Hong (in 1221 AD) as being ample and having a side closing;[21]

similar to the garments of the Chinese Daoists... Furthermore, they have a jacket with wide sleeves, which resembles the Chinese "crane cloak"; it is wide and long and drags on the ground. When they walk, two female servants carry [the train of the robe]

— Shea, Mongol Court Dress, Identity Formation, and Global Exchange, page 80-81

These historical accounts appear to correspond to both the surviving Yuan dynasty court women robes and from the pictorial evidences from both the Yuan and Ilkhanate court arts.[9]: 79–81  The similarity of the Mongol women robe to the Mongol men's robe (i.e. terlig) do not appear true based on the surviving material evidence.[9]: 79–81 

The long, red Mongol robe became the official dress was worn by elite Mongol women.[9]: 90  It was a form of outwear;[11] it also worn with the gugu hat,[9]: 90  which was red in colour for the Empress and court ladies.[21] The use of wide red robes and red gugu hat worn Empresses (Khatun) and court ladies by can be seen in the depictions of the Yuan dynasty and the Ilkhanid dynasty in Iran and West Asia.[21] Robes which corresponds to the red Mongol court dresses have also been excavated in the Northern Yuan territory in present-day Inner Mongolia, Hebei, Shaanxi; the robes are wide and the sleeves are loose with tampered sleeves (wrist cuff are narrow).[21]

Overjacket

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Another woman's garment worn during the Yuan dynasty is a short overjacket.[2]: 79–82 

Shoes

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Mongol women also did not engage in foot binding practice and often wore boots and embroidered silk slippers or shoe covers for unbound feet.[9]: 84–86 

Han Chinese clothing

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See also: Hanfu

The Yuan dynasty court clothing also allowed the mixed of Mongol- and Han-style.[4] The first Mongol khan to wear Chinese clothing was Möngke (1251–1259 AD) who wore the robes of the Son of Heaven, which form of Ceremonial dress of the Chinese emperors worn during the Worshipping of Heaven.[4] According to the Yuanshi, Möngke wore the gunmian in 1252.[9]: 45 

In the Yuan dynasty, the Mongols never imposed Mongol customs on the ethnic Han,[23] and they did not force the Han Chinese to wear Mongol clothing.[9]: 84–86  Many Han Chinese and other ethnicities readily adopted Mongol clothing in Northern China to show their allegiance to the Yuan rulers; however, in Southern China, Mongol clothing was rarely seen as both men and women continued to dress in Song-style garments.[2]: 82–83 [9]: 84–86 

The type of clothing worn in the Yuan dynasty may have also served as a political statement; for example, despite not being the clothing of the ruling elite, the Tang-Song style clothing also continued to be worn in multiple layers by families who showed that they were resisting the rule of the Mongols.[9]: 84–86  The Song style dress also continued to persist among the southern elites of the Yuan dynasty and evidence of Song-style clothing was also found in the unearthed tombs in southern China.[9]: 84–86  The casual clothing for men mainly followed the dress code of the Han people and they wore banbi as a casual clothing item while ordinary women clothing consisted of banbi and ruqun.[8] The wearing short-length cross-collar upper garment over long narrow skirt was also a Song-style woman fashion.[24] Long cross-collar upper garment (about the knee-length) over a long skirt could also be worn by Chinese elite women.[25] Han Chinese women also wore a combination of a cross-collar upper garment which had elbow length sleeves (i.e. cross-collar banbi) over a long-sleeved blouse under a skirt with an abbreviated wrap skirts were also popular in Yuan.[25][6]: 142  This form of set of clothing was a style which slightly deviated from the ruqun worn in the Tang and Song dynasties.[6]: 142  It was also common for Chinese women in the Yuan dynasty to close their clothing to the left side (instead of the right side).[26]

  • Han Chinese clothing
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    The tomb occupants are Han but are wearing Mongol-style clothing. The female tomb occupant is depicted wearing the woman's red Mongol robe under a short overjacket but does not wear the gugu hat, Shazishan Tomb Fresco, Yuan Dynasty.
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    A community in Yuan dynasty; some of the hats and clothing of these figures appear to be Mongol-style; from the painting Street Scenes in Times of Peace (Chinese: 太平風會圖), Yuan dynasty 14th century.[27]
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    A community in Yuan dynasty; some of the hats and clothing of these figures appear to be Mongol-style; from the painting Street Scenes in Times of Peace (Chinese: 太平風會圖), Yuan dynasty 14th century.[27]
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    A community in Yuan dynasty; some of the hats and clothing of these figures appear to be Mongol-style; from the painting Street Scenes in Times of Peace (Chinese: 太平風會圖), Yuan dynasty 14th century.[27]
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    Women depicted in the Fresco in the Hall of King Mingying. Han women wore elbow-length sleeves, cross-collar upper garment over a long-sleeved blouse; the abbreviated skirts were popular in Yuan.[28]
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    Yuan dynasty female figures wearing ruqun and banbi.
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    A Chinese wall mural painting from a Daoist temple, Yuan dynasty painting.
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    Yuan dynasty illustration of people wearing hanfu and playing Cuju (from the Shilin Guangji by Chen Yuanjing)

Goryeo-style clothing

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Near the end of the Yuan dynasty, clothing style from Goryeo became popular and was perceived as beautiful; they were adopted by Mongol rulers.[1] The Mongol aristocrats, queens and imperial concubines started to imitate the clothing style of Goryeo women.[29] The diffusion of Goryeo culture (including clothing customs) in the upper class culture of the Mongols has been attributed to the last Empress of the Yuan dynasty; Empress Gi, who was the empress of Toghon Temür and became first empress in 1365 (a time when the Yuan dynasty's control over China was dissolving[30]) exercised great power as soon as she became empress.[31]

During the Yuan dynasty, the Mongol forced the rulers of Goryeo to send Goryeo women and children to the Yuan.[31][30] Many people from Goryeo were sent to live in Yuan against their will, and most of them were the Kongnyo (Chinese: 貢女; lit. 'tribute women'), eunuchs and war prisoners.[31] Between 1275 and 1355, there were approximately 50 instances where Goryeo tribute women were sent to the Mongol court by the Goryeo court.[30] There were approximately 2000 young Goryeo women who were sent to Yuan as Kongnyo; they were considered beautiful women and excellent servants, but most of them lived in exhausting lifestyles which were marked with hard labour and sexual abuse.[31] The Kongnyo were in effect slaves who were sent to Yuan as a sign of Goryeo submission to Yuan.[30] Only some of them were able to become the concubines or wives of Yuan's noblemen.[31] Moreover, although envoys from the Yuan dynasty would travel to Goryeo on a regular basis in order to gain some women on behalf of the Yuan Emperor; the Yuan Emperor would often redistribute these women to the Yuan ministers as gifts.[32]: 52  There is also no records of other Goryeo women becoming of consorts of the previous emperors of Yuan dynasty beside Empress Gi as Goryeo women sent to Yuan by the Goryeo court were considered of low origins at that time; moreover, the previous Yuan dynasty Emperors followed the will of Kublai Khan, who said that "[Goryeo] women shall not participate with Our sons and grandsons in the affairs of the imperial ancestral temple";[33]: 302–303  thus forbidding his descendants from marrying Goryeo women as a family rule.[34]: 25  The ascension of Empress Gi as Empress was a total disregard to the Yuan dynasty tradition which did not allow non-Mongol women to become principal empresses.[33]: 302–303 

Empress Gi was one of those Kongnyo women.[31] When Empress Gi became empress of Yuan, she started to recruit many Goryeo court maids in the palace.[31] Due the presence of these recruited Kongnyo women, Goryeo-style became common in the Mongol court; in the 14th century, it was recorded in the Gengshen Waishi《庚申外史》 that: "Among prominent officials and influential people in the capital city [Dadu[35]: 117 ], acquisition of a Koryŏ woman has become [popular, or a "must have"[35]: 117 ] for one to be considered a leading light [notable[35]: 117 ]. The Koryŏ women are amiable and yielding; they excel in serving (their lords) to such a degree that they often win (his) favor (away from other women). Since the Zhizheng reign period [1341–1368[35]: 117 ], most of the palace stewards and attendants in the imperial palace are Koryŏ women. For this reason, everywhere clothes, shoes, hats, and utensils all follow the [Goryeo] style".[32]: 53 [36] This showed that Korean women were preferred in the last decades of the Yuan dynasty to the point that fetishism was developed around them.[35]: 117  The late Yuan dynasty poet Zhang Xu also wrote a few poems about the popularity of Goryeo-style, which was dubbed as Goryeoyang (Chinese: 高麗樣).[31] At the end of the Yuan dynasty, the Goryeoyang clothing is described as a short, banryong (方領, square collar) banbi (半臂, a short sleeve upper garment) which passed beneath the waist.[31] However, so far, the modern interpretation on the appearance of Mongol royal women's clothing influenced by Goryeoyang is based on authors' suggestions.[37] According to Hyunhee Park: "Like the Mongolian style, it is possible that this Koryŏ style [Koryŏ yang] continued to influence some Chinese in the Ming period after the Ming dynasty replaced the Yuan dynasty, a topic to investigate further."[38]

Theatre clothing

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Yuan dynasty theatre actors wore elaborate costumes and stereotyped facial makeup; diverse costumes of different nationalities were worn, Yuan dynasty, 1324 AD.

In the Yuan dynasty, theatre zaju drama actors wore all different clothes ranging from Jurchen, to Khitan, to Mongol, to Song Han Chinese clothes.[39]

Legacy

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After the fall of the Yuan dynasty, any clothing which was not Hanfu was banned in the succeeding Ming dynasty.[1] However, the influence of Mongol clothing could not erased completely; and some clothing in Ming dynasty had absorbed elements of both the Hanfu and the Mongol clothing of the Yuan dynasty.[39] Other forms of clothing was directly adapted from Mongol clothing and was localized; i.e. the hats damao (大帽; big hat), humao (胡帽; "barbarian hat"), and the xiaomao (小帽; "small hat"); the robes yesa (曳撒) and tieli (贴里); the open-sided vest bijia (比甲), and the dahu (褡护) jacket.[3][40][41][10] The zhisun also continued to be worn in the Ming dynasty.[3]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ The recorded observations on Mongol clothing found in Heida shilüe were based on the observations of the Southern Song envoys Peng Daya who visited the Mongol court in 1232 and Xu Ting who visited the Mongol court between 1235 and 1236.
  2. ^ The Mongol Haiqing should not be confused with the Chinese Haiqing, another kind of robe worn by Buddhist monks.
  3. ^ The translated English version of the source wrote 'dopo'; however dopo is another kind of robe. The Korean version links to the page 'dapo'. Dapo is another way of writing the term 'dapho'.

References

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  1. ^ a b c Yang, Shaorong (2004). Traditional Chinese clothing : costumes, adornments & culture. San Francisco: Long River Press. p. 6. ISBN 1-59265-019-8. OCLC 52775158.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i Watt, James C. Y. (2010). The world of Khubilai Khan : Chinese art in the Yuan Dynasty. Maxwell K. Hearn, Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-1-58839-402-6. OCLC 606786260.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Wei, Luo (2018-01-02). "A Preliminary Study of Mongol Costumes in the Ming Dynasty". Social Sciences in China. 39 (1): 165–185. doi:10.1080/02529203.2018.1414417. ISSN 0252-9203. S2CID 149138176.
  4. ^ a b c Jaġcidsecen (2018). "Elements of Nomadic Culture". Mongolia's culture and society. Paul Hyer. New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-429-05085-5. OCLC 1110009278.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  5. ^ a b c Hua, Mei (2011). Chinese clothing (Updated ed.). Cambridge, United Kingdom. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-521-18689-6. OCLC 781020660.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h 5000 years of Chinese costumes. Xun Zhou, Chunming Gao, 周汛, Shanghai Shi xi qu xue xiao. Zhongguo fu zhuang shi yan jiu zu. San Francisco, CA: China Books & Periodicals. 1987. ISBN 0-8351-1822-3. OCLC 19814728.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  7. ^ a b Liu, Ke Yan (2013-09-18). "Analysis on the Cloud Shoulder Pattern of the Yuan Dynasty Fabrics". Advanced Materials Research. 821–822: 823–828. doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.821-822.823. ISSN 1662-8985. S2CID 135673789.
  8. ^ a b c "Costume in the Yuan Dynasty---ASEAN---China Center". www.asean-china-center.org. Retrieved 2021-07-18.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Shea, Eiren L. (2020). Mongol court dress, identity formation, and global exchange. New York, NY. ISBN 978-0-429-34065-9. OCLC 1139920835.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  10. ^ a b c Cho, Woohyun; Yi, Jaeyoon; Kim, Jinyoung (2015). "The dress of the Mongol Empire: Genealogy and diaspora of the Terlig" (PDF). Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 68 (3): 22–29. doi:10.1556/062.2015.68.3.2. ISSN 0001-6446.[permanent dead link]
  11. ^ a b c Oka, Ildikó (2015). "Mongol Clothing in the Yuan Period *". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 68 (4): 385–414. doi:10.1556/062.2015.68.4.2. ISSN 0001-6446.
  12. ^ 张, 国伟 (2013). "元代半臂的形制与渊源". 提出元代半臂的三种形制,即:直领短衫式半臂、交领右衽长袍式半臂(也称搭护)、方领对襟长袍式半臂。
  13. ^ "Dapo(褡)". Encyclopedia of Korean Folk Culture.
  14. ^ "철릭" [Cheollik]. 한국민속대백과사전 (in Korean). Retrieved 2022-03-24.
  15. ^ "Vajrabhairava mandala ca. 1330–32". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2021-07-18.
  16. ^ a b Rossabi, Morris (2009). Khubilai Khan : his life and times. Berkeley: Univ of California Press. pp. 67–68. ISBN 978-0-520-94536-4. OCLC 910102855.
  17. ^ a b c Lee, Lily Xiao Hong (2015). Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Women, Volume II : Tang Through Ming 618-1644. Sue Wiles. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. p. 25. ISBN 978-1-317-51562-3. OCLC 905984401.
  18. ^ Tackett, Nicolas (2017). The Origins of the Chinese Nation: Song China and the Forging of an East Asian World Order. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1108186926.
  19. ^ Dusenberry, Mary M. (2004). Flowers, dragons and pine trees : Asian textiles in the Spencer Museum of Art. Carol Bier, Helen Foresman Spencer Museum of Art (1st ed.). New York: Hudson Hills Press. p. 109. ISBN 1-55595-238-0. OCLC 55016186.
  20. ^ a b The Mongol empire : a historical encyclopedia. Timothy Michael May. Santa Barbara, California. 2017. p. 129. ISBN 978-1-61069-340-0. OCLC 962752105.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  21. ^ a b c d Shea, Eiren (2018). "Painted Silks: Form and Production of Women's Court Dress in the Mongol Empire". The Textile Museum (45): 37–55. doi:10.7560/TMJ4504 (inactive 1 November 2024).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  22. ^ "Vajrabhairava mandala ca. 1330–32". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2021-07-18.
  23. ^ Bulag, Uradyn E. (2010), "Wearing Ethnic Identity: Power of Dress", East Asia, vol. 6, Oxford: Berg Publishers, pp. 75–80, doi:10.2752/bewdf/edch6014, ISBN 9781847888556, retrieved 2021-02-28
  24. ^ SHEA, Eiren L. (2021-12-15). "Intentional Identities: Liao Women's Dress and Cultural and Political Power". Acta Via Serica. 6 (2): 37–60. doi:10.22679/AVS.2021.6.2.003.
  25. ^ a b Sun, Ming-ju (2002). Chinese fashions. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications. pp. 19–20. ISBN 0-486-42053-1. OCLC 55693573.
  26. ^ The Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities Bulletin No.70. Östasiatiska museet. 1998. p. 208.
  27. ^ a b c Yu, Zhu. "Street Scenes in Times of Peace 太平風會圖". The Art Institute of Chicago. Retrieved 2021-07-26.
  28. ^ Sun, Ming-ju (2002). Chinese fashions. Mineola, N.Y.: Dover Publications. p. 19. ISBN 0-486-42053-1. OCLC 55693573.
  29. ^ "Costume in the Yuan Dynasty - - China Style". www.chinastyle.cn. Retrieved 2021-04-07.
  30. ^ a b c d Hwang, Kyung Moon (2016). A history of Korea (Second ed.). Basingstoke, Hampshire. pp. 47–49. ISBN 978-1-137-57359-9. OCLC 1191052736.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  31. ^ a b c d e f g h i Kim, Jinyoung; Lee, Jaeyeong; Lee, Jongoh (2015). "Goryeoyang and Mongolpung in the 13 th –14 th centuries *". Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 68 (3): 281–292. doi:10.1556/062.2015.68.3.3. ISSN 0001-6446.
  32. ^ a b Robinson, David M. (2009). Empire's twilight : northeast Asia under the Mongols. Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 978-1-68417-052-4. OCLC 956712067.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  33. ^ a b Lee, Lily Xiao Hong (2014). Biographical dictionary of Chinese women Tang Through Ming 618 - 1644. Vol. II. A. D. Stefanowska, Sue Wiles, Clara Wing-chung Ho. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-0043-1. OCLC 38438555.
  34. ^ Zhao, George Qingzhi (2008). Marriage as political strategy and cultural expression : Mongolian royal marriages from world empire to Yuan dynasty. New York: Peter Lang Pub. ISBN 978-1-4331-0275-2. OCLC 192134589.
  35. ^ a b c d e Slavery and bonded labor in Asia, 1250-1900. Richard Blair Allen. Leiden. 2022. ISBN 978-90-04-46965-5. OCLC 1284921425.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  36. ^ "庚申外史 : 卷下 - Chinese Text Project". ctext.org. Retrieved 2022-03-24. 祁后亦多蓄高麗美人，大臣有權者輒以此女送之。京師達官貴人，必得高麗女然后為名家。高麗婉媚，善事人，至則多奪寵。自至正以來，宮中給事使令，大半為高麗女。以故四方衣服鞋帽器物，皆依高麗樣子。此關系一時風氣，豈偶然哉！
  37. ^ Choi, Hai-Yaul (2007). "A Study on the Design of Historical Costume for Making Movie & Multimedia -Focused on Rich Women's Costume of Goryeo-Yang and Mongol-Pung in the 13th to 14th Century-". Journal of the Korean Society of Costume. 57 (1): 176–186. ISSN 1229-6880.
  38. ^ Park, Hyunhee (2021). Soju : a global history. Cambridge, United Kingdom. pp. 124–125. ISBN 978-1-108-89577-4. OCLC 1198087560.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  39. ^ a b Wang, Guojun (2020). Staging Personhood: Costuming in Early Qing Drama. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0231549578.
  40. ^ Finnane, Antonia (2008), Changing clothes in China: fashion, history, nation, Columbia University Press, pp. 44–46, ISBN 978-0-231-14350-9
  41. ^ Schlesinger, Jonathan (2017). A world trimmed with fur : wild things, pristine places, and the natural fringes of Qing rule. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-1-5036-0068-3. OCLC 949669739.
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