The fig is the edible fruit of Ficus carica, a species of small shrub in the flowering plant family Moraceae, native to the Mediterranean region, together with western and southern Asia. It has been cultivated since ancient times and is now widely grown throughout the world.[3][4] Ficus carica is the type species of the genus Ficus, containing over 800 tropical and subtropical plant species.
| Ficus carica – Common fig | |
|---|---|
| |
| Foliage and fruit drawn in 1771[1] | |
Scientific classification 
| |
| Kingdom: | Plantae |
| Clade: | Tracheophytes |
| Clade: | Angiosperms |
| Clade: | Eudicots |
| Clade: | Rosids |
| Order: | Rosales |
| Family: | Moraceae |
| Genus: | Ficus |
| Subgenus: | F. subg. Ficus |
| Species: | F. carica
|
| Binomial name | |
| Ficus carica | |
| Synonyms[2] | |
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Synonymy
| |
A fig plant is a small deciduous tree or large shrub growing up to 7–10 m (23–33 ft) tall, with smooth white bark. Its large leaves have three to five deep lobes. Its fruit (referred to as syconium, a type of multiple fruit) is tear-shaped, 3–5 cm (1–2 in) long, with a green skin that may ripen toward purple or brown, and sweet soft reddish flesh containing numerous crunchy seeds. The milky sap of the green parts is an irritant to human skin. In the Northern Hemisphere, fresh figs are in season from late summer to early autumn. They tolerate moderate seasonal frost and can be grown even in hot-summer continental climates.
Figs can be eaten fresh or dried, or processed into jam, rolls, biscuits and other types of desserts. Since ripe fruit does not transport and keep well, most commercial production is in dried and processed forms. Raw figs contain roughly 80% water and 20% carbohydrates, with negligible protein, fat and micronutrient content. They are a moderate source of dietary fiber.
In 2018, world production of raw figs was 1.14 million tonnes, led by Turkey and North African countries (Egypt, Morocco, and Algeria) as the largest producers, collectively accounting for 64% of the total.[5]
Etymology
editThe word fig, first recorded in English in the 13th century, derives from (Old) French figue, itself from Occitan (Provençal) figa, from Romance *fica, from Classical Latin ficus (fig or fig-tree).[6] Italian has fico, directly derived from Latin ficus. The name of the caprifig, Ficus caprificus Risso, is derived both from Latin caper, genitive capri (he-goat) and English fig.[7]
Biology
editDescription
editFicus carica is a gynodioecious, deciduous tree or large shrub that grows up to 7–10 m (23–33 ft) tall, with smooth white bark. Its fragrant leaves are 12–25 cm (4+1⁄2–10 in) long and 10–18 cm (4–7 in) wide, and are deeply lobed (three or five lobes).
The fig fruit develops as a hollow, fleshy structure called the syconium that is lined internally with numerous unisexual flowers. The tiny flowers bloom inside this cup-like structure. Although commonly called a fruit, the syconium is botanically an infructescence, a type of multiple fruit. The small fig flowers and later small single-seeded (true) fruits line its interior surface. A small opening or ostiole, visible on the middle of the fruit, is a narrow passage that allows the specialized fig wasp, Blastophaga psenes, to enter the inflorescence and pollinate the flowers, after which each fertilized ovule (one per flower, in its ovary) develops into a seed. At maturity, these 'seeds' (actually single-seeded fruits) line the inside of each fig.
The edible mature syconium develops into a fleshy false fruit bearing the numerous one-seeded fruits, which are technically drupelets.[8] The whole fig fruit is 3–5 cm (1–2 in) long, with a green skin that sometimes ripens toward purple or brown. Ficus carica has milky sap, produced by laticifer cells. The sap of the green parts is an irritant to human skin.[9]
Habitat
edit
The common fig tree has been cultivated since ancient times and grows wild in dry and sunny locations with deep and fresh soil, and in rocky locations that are at sea level to 1,700 metres in elevation. It prefers relatively porous and freely draining soil, and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. Unlike other fig species, Ficus carica does not always require pollination by a wasp or from another tree,[10][11] but can be pollinated by the fig wasp, Blastophaga psenes to produce seeds. Fig wasps are not present to pollinate in colder regions such as the British Isles.[12]
The species has become naturalized in scattered locations in Asia and North America.[13][14]
The plant tolerates seasonal drought, and the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean climates are especially suitable to it. Situated in a favorable habitat, mature specimens can grow to considerable size as large, dense, shade trees. Its aggressive root system precludes its cultivation in many urban locations, yet in nature this characteristic helps the plant to root in the most inhospitable locations. Having a great need of water, it is mostly a phreatophyte that extracts the needed water from sources in or on the ground. Consequently, it frequently grows in locations with standing or running water, e. g. in valleys of rivers and in ravines that collect water. The deeply rooted plant searches for groundwater in aquifers, ravines, or cracks in rocks. With access to this water, the tree cools the hot environments in which it grows, thus producing fresh and pleasant habitat for many animals that shelter in its shade during periods of intense heat.[citation needed]
The mountain or rock fig (Persian: انجیر کوهی, romanized: anjīr kuhi) is a wild variety, tolerant of cold dry climates, of the semi-arid rocky montane regions of Iran, especially in the Kūhestān mountains of Khorasan.[9]
Ecology
editFicus carica is dispersed by birds and mammals that scatter their seeds in droppings. Fig fruit is an important food source for much of the fauna in some areas, and the tree owes its expansion to those that feed on its fruit. The common fig tree also sprouts from the root and stolon tissues.[citation needed]
Cultivation
editFrom ancient times
edit
The edible fig is one of the first plants that were cultivated by humans. Nine subfossil figs of a parthenocarpic (and therefore sterile) type dating to about 9400–9200 BC were found in the early Neolithic village Gilgal I (in the Jordan Valley, 13 km north of Jericho). The find precedes the domestication of wheat, barley, and legumes, and may thus be the first known instance of agriculture. It is proposed that this sterile but desirable type was planted and cultivated intentionally, one thousand years before the next crops were domesticated (wheat and rye).[15][16][17] In ancient Palestine, fig-cakes were often produced from selected ripe figs.[18]
Figs were widespread in ancient Greece, and their cultivation was described by both Aristotle and Theophrastus. Aristotle noted that as in animal sexes, figs have individuals of two kinds, one (the cultivated fig) that bears fruit, and one (the wild caprifig) that assists the other to bear fruit. Further, Aristotle recorded that the fruits of the wild fig contain psenes (fig wasps); these begin life as larvae, and the adult psen splits its "skin" (pupa) and flies out of the fig to find and enter a cultivated fig, saving it from dropping. Theophrastus observed that just as date palms have male and female flowers, and that farmers (from the East) help by scattering "dust" from the male onto the female, and as a male fish releases his milt over the female's eggs, so Greek farmers tie wild figs to cultivated trees. They do not say directly that figs reproduce sexually, however.[19]
Figs were also a common food source for the Romans. Cato the Elder, in his c. 160 BC De Agri Cultura, lists several strains of figs grown at the time he wrote his handbook: the Mariscan, African, Herculanean, Saguntine, and the black Tellanian.[20] The fruits were used, among other things, to fatten geese for the production of a precursor of foie gras. Rome's first emperor, Augustus, was reputed to have been poisoned with figs from his garden smeared with poison by his wife Livia.[21][22] For this reason, or perhaps because of her horticultural expertise, a variety of fig known as the Liviana was cultivated in Roman gardens.[23]
It was cultivated from Afghanistan to Portugal, also grown in Pithoragarh in the Kumaon hills of India. From the 15th century onwards, it was grown in areas including Northern Europe and the New World.[3] In the 16th century, Cardinal Reginald Pole introduced fig trees to Lambeth Palace in London.[citation needed]
In 1769, Spanish missionaries led by Junipero Serra brought the first figs to California. The Mission variety, which they cultivated, is still popular.[24] The fact that it is parthenocarpic (self-pollinating) made it an ideal cultivar for introduction.[citation needed]
The Kadota cultivar is even older, being mentioned by the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder in the 1st century A.D.[25] Pliny recorded thirty varieties of figs.[26]
The name Kadota name did not exist in the era of Pliny the Elder nor is it mentioned in Pliny's works. Also only 29 figs were recorded in his work; Pliny the Elder, The Natural History, English translation by John Bostock and H.T. Riley, Book XV, CHAP. 19. (18.)—TWENTY-NINE VARIETIES OF THE FIG.
The Kadota name was created in the early 20th century in California, USA, to name a "sport" or genetic deviation from a Dotatto fig tree as documented in The Kadota Fig: A Treatise On Its Origin, Planting And Care by W. Sam Clark.
Modern
edit
The common fig is grown for its edible fruit throughout the temperate world. It is also grown as an ornamental tree, and in the UK the cultivars 'Brown Turkey'[27] and 'Ice Crystal' (mainly grown for its unusual foliage)[28] have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.[29]
Figs are also grown in Germany, mainly in private gardens inside built up areas. There is no commercial fig growing.[30] The Palatine region in the German South West has an estimated 80,000 fig trees. The variety Brown Turkey is the most widespread in the region.[31] There are about a dozen quite widespread varieties hardy enough to survive winter outdoors mostly without special protection. There are even two local varieties, "Martinsfeige" and "Lussheim", which may be the hardiest varieties in the region.[32]
As the population of California grew, especially after the gold rush, a number of other cultivars were brought there by persons and nurserymen from the east coast of the US and from France and England. By the end of the 19th century, it became apparent that California had the potential for being an ideal fig producing state because of its Mediterranean-like climate and latitude of 38 degrees, lining up San Francisco with İzmir, Turkey. G. P. Rixford first brought true Smyrna figs to California in 1880. The most popular cultivar of Smyrna-type fig is Calimyrna, being a name that combines "California" and "Smyrna". The cultivar, however, is not one that was produced by a breeding program, and instead is from one of the cuttings brought to California in the latter part of the 19th century. It is identical to the cultivar Lob Injir that has been grown in Turkey for centuries.[25]
Figs can be found in continental climates with hot summers as far north as Hungary and Moravia. Thousands of cultivars, most named, have been developed as human migration brought the fig to many places outside its natural range. Fig plants can be propagated by seed or by vegetative methods. Vegetative propagation is quicker and more reliable, as it does not yield the inedible caprifigs. Seeds germinate readily in moist conditions and grow rapidly once established. For vegetative propagation, shoots with buds can be planted in well-watered soil in the spring or summer, or a branch can be scratched to expose the bast (inner bark) and pinned to the ground to allow roots to develop.[33]
Two crops of figs can be produced each year.[34] The first or breba crop develops in the spring on last year's shoot growth. The main fig crop develops on the current year's shoot growth and ripens in the late summer or fall. The main crop is generally superior in quantity and quality, but some cultivars such as 'Black Mission', 'Croisic', and 'Ventura' produce good breba crops.[citation needed]
There are three types of edible figs:[35]
- Persistent (or common) figs have all female flowers that do not need pollination for fruiting; the fruit can develop through parthenocarpic means. This is a popular horticulture fig for home gardeners. Dottato (Kadota), Black Mission, Brown Turkey, Brunswick, and Celeste are some representative cultivars.
- Caducous (or Smyrna) figs require cross pollination by the fig wasp with pollen from caprifigs for the fruit to mature. If not pollinated the immature fruits drop. Some cultivars are Marabout, Inchàrio, and Zidi.
- Intermediate (or San Pedro) figs set an unpollinated breba crop but need pollination for the later main crop. Examples are Lampeira, King, and San Pedro.
There are dozens of fig cultivars, including main and breba cropping varieties, and an edible caprifig (the Croisic). Varieties are often local, found in a single region of one country.[34][36]
Overwintering
editPeople of the Italian diaspora who live in cold-winter climates have the practice of burying imported fig trees to overwinter them and protect the fruiting hard wood from cold.[37] Italian immigrants to America in the 19th century introduced this common practice in cities such as New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and Toronto, where winters are normally too cold to leave the tree exposed.[38] This practice consists in digging a trench that is appropriate to the size of the specimen, some of which are more than 10 feet tall, severing part of the root system, and bending the specimen into the trench. Specimens are often wrapped in waterproof material to discourage development of mould and fungus, then covered with a heavy layer of soil and leaves. Sometimes plywood or corrugated metal is placed on top to secure the tree.[39] In borderline climates like New York City burying trees is no longer needed because low winter temperatures have increased. Often specimens are simply wrapped in plastic and other insulating material, or not protected if planted in a sheltered site against a wall that absorbs sunlight.[38]
Breeding
editWhile the fig contains more naturally occurring varieties than any other tree crop, a formal breeding program was not developed until the beginning of the 20th century.[40] Ira Condit, "High Priest of the Fig," and William Storey tested some thousands of fig seedlings in the early 20th century based at University of California, Riverside.[36] It was then continued at the University of California, Davis. However, the fig breeding program was ultimately closed in the 1980s.[40]
Due to insect and fungal disease pressure in both dried and fresh figs, the breeding program was revived in 1989 by James Doyle and Louise Ferguson using the germplasm established at UC Riverside by Ira Condit and William Storey. Crosses were made and two new varieties are now in production in California: the public variety "Sierra", and the patented variety "Sequoia".[41]
Production
edit| Fig production – 2020 | |
|---|---|
| Country | (tonnes) |
| 320,000 | |
| 201,212 | |
| 144,246 | |
| 116,143 | |
| 107,791 | |
| 59,900 | |
| 46,502 | |
| 27,084 | |
| 21,889 | |
| 19,840 | |
| 19,601 | |
World |
1,264,943 |
| Source: United Nations FAOSTAT[5] | |
In 2020, world production of raw figs was 1.26 million tonnes, led by Turkey (with 25% of the world total), Egypt, Morocco, and Algeria as the largest producers collectively accounting for 62% of the total.[5]
Food
edit
Figs can be eaten fresh or dried, and used in jam-making. Most commercial production is in dried or otherwise processed forms, since the ripe fruit does not transport well, and once picked does not keep well. The widely produced fig roll ("Fig Newton" is a trademark of Nabisco) is a biscuit (or cookie) with a filling made from figs.
In the Northern Hemisphere, fresh figs are in season from August through to early October. Fresh figs used in cooking should be plump and soft, and without bruising or splits. If they smell sour, the figs have become over-ripe. Slightly under-ripe figs can be kept at room temperature for 1–2 days to ripen before serving. Figs are most flavorful at room temperature.[42]
Freshly harvested figs underwent two distinct drying methods for preservation. The first method was natural sun-drying, where the figs were exposed to the warmth and light of the sun. The second method involved oven-drying, where the figs were placed in a controlled temperature environment within an oven.[43] Each process has its unique impact on the texture and flavor profile of the dried figs.[43]
Nutrition
edit_fruits.jpg) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy | 310 kJ (74 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
19.2 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sugars | 16.3 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dietary fiber | 3 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.3 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.8 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Water | 79 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| †Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[44] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[45] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Energy | 1,041 kJ (249 kcal) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
63.9 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sugars | 47.9 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Dietary fiber | 9.8 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
0.93 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
3.3 g | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Other constituents | Quantity | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Water | 30 g | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| †Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[44] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[45] | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Raw figs are 79% water, 19% carbohydrates, 1% protein, and contain negligible fat (table). They are a moderate source (14% of the Daily Value, DV) of dietary fiber and 310 kilojoules (74 kcal) of food energy per 100-gram serving, and do not supply essential micronutrients in significant contents (table).
When dehydrated to 30% water, figs have a carbohydrate content of 64%, protein content of 3%, and fat content of 1%.[46] In a 100-gram serving, providing 1,041 kJ (249 kcal) of food energy, dried figs are a rich source (more than 20% DV) of dietary fiber and the essential mineral manganese (26% DV), while calcium, iron, magnesium, potassium, and vitamin K are in moderate amounts.[46]
In fig fruits, the levels of glucose and fructose are nearly identical, with glucose being slightly more prevalent overall, while the presence of sucrose is minimal.[47][48][49] Still, in some varieties of figs, the fructose content can occasionally slightly surpass that of glucose.[47]
Research and folk medicine
editPhytochemicals
editFigs contain diverse phytochemicals under basic research for their potential biological properties, including polyphenols, such as gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, syringic acid, (+)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin and rutin.[50][51] Fig color may vary between cultivars due to various concentrations of anthocyanins, with cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside having particularly high content.[52]
Folk medicine
editIn some old Mediterranean folk practices, the milky sap of the fig plant was used to soften calluses, remove warts, and deter parasites.[53]
Since the late 1800s, syrup of figs combined with senna has been available as a laxative.
Toxicity
editLike other plant species in the family Moraceae, contact with the milky sap of Ficus carica followed by exposure to ultraviolet light can cause phytophotodermatitis,[54][55] a potentially serious skin inflammation. Although the plant is not poisonous per se, F. carica is listed in the FDA Database of Poisonous Plants.[56]
Organic chemical compounds called furanocoumarins are known to cause phytophotodermatitis in humans.[57] The common fig contains significant quantities of two furanocoumarins, psoralen and bergapten.[58] The essential oil of fig leaves contains more than 10% psoralen, the highest concentration of any organic compound isolated from fig leaves.[59] Psoralen appears to be the primary furanocoumarin compound responsible for fig leaf-induced phytophotodermatitis.[citation needed]
Psoralen and bergapten are found chiefly in the milky sap of the leaves and shoots of F. carica but not the fruits.[58] Neither psoralen nor bergapten were detected in the essential oil of fig fruits.[59] Thus there is no conclusive evidence that fig fruits cause phytophotodermatitis.[citation needed]
Cultural significance
editBabylonian mythology
editBabylonian Ishtar for example took the form of the divine fig tree Xikum, the "primeval mother at the central place of the earth", protectress of the saviour Tammuz. Moreover, figs and the fig tree were closely linked with female sexuality. According to Barbara Walker's encyclopedia on Goddess symbols, "This may account for the common use of the fig tree as a symbol of man's enlightenment, which was formerly supposed to come through his connection with the female principle."[60]
Buddhism
editGautama Buddha attained enlightenment (bodhi) after meditating underneath a Ficus religiosa, known as the bodhi tree, for seven weeks (49 days) around 500 BCE. The site of enlightenment is in present-day Bodh Gaya and its bodhi tree has been replaced several times.[61]
Judaism and Christianity
editIn the Biblical Book of Genesis, Adam and Eve clad themselves with fig leaves (Genesis 3:7) after eating the forbidden fruit from the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Likewise, fig leaves, or depictions of fig leaves, have long been used to cover the genitals of nude figures in painting and sculpture, for example in Masaccio's The Expulsion from the Garden of Eden. Moreover, according to one opinion in the Talmud and the Jewish Biblical commentary, the forbidden fruit of the Tree of Knowledge in the Garden of Eden could have been a fig.[62] There is also a Christian tradition that the Tree of Knowledge was the same fig tree Christ withers in the Gospels.[63]
The Book of Deuteronomy specifies the fig as one of the Seven Species (Deuteronomy 8:7–8), describing the fertility of the land of Canaan. This is a set of seven plants indigenous to the Middle East that together can provide food all year round. The list is organized by date of harvest, with the fig being fourth due to its main crop ripening during summer.[citation needed]
The biblical quote "each man under his own vine and fig tree" (Micah 4:4) has been used to denote peace and prosperity. It was commonly quoted to refer to the life that would be led by settlers in the American West,[64] and was used by Theodor Herzl in his depiction of the future Jewish Homeland: "We are a commonwealth. In form it is new, but in purpose very ancient. Our aim is mentioned in the First Book of Kings: 'Judah and Israel shall dwell securely, each man under his own vine and fig tree, from Dan to Beersheba".[65] United States President George Washington, writing in 1790 to the Touro Synagogue of Newport, Rhode Island, extended the metaphor to denote the equality of all Americans regardless of faith.[66]
Islam
editSura 95 of the Qur'an is named al-Tīn (Arabic for "The Fig"), as it opens with the oath "By the fig and the olive."[67]
Wrongly attributed hadiths that Muhammad stated figs are descended from paradise, and that they cure hemorrhoids are judged weak by specialists.[68]
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Fossil record
edit10 fossil endocarps of †Ficus potentilloides from the early Miocene, have been found in the Kristina Mine at Hrádek nad Nisou in North Bohemia, the Czech Republic. These fossils are similar to endocarps of F. carica.[69]
See also
edit
- Cursing of the fig tree
- Ficus racemosa ("Cluster fig"), a species native to Australia, Malesia, South-East Asia, and the Indian subcontinent
- Ficus sycomorus ("Sycamore fig"), a species native to Africa and Lebanon
- Fig cake
- Fig sign
- Grocer's itch
- List of foods with religious symbolism
References
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- ^ a b The Fig: its History, Culture, and Curing, Gustavus A. Eisen, Washington, Govt. print. off., 1901
- ^ RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. p. 1136. ISBN 978-1-4053-3296-5.
- ^ a b c "Raw fig production in 2018; Crops/World Regions/Production Quantity from picklists". UN Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database, FAOSTAT. 2019. Archived from the original on 30 October 2018. Retrieved 7 June 2020.
- ^ T.F. Hoad, The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, Oxford University Press, 1986, page 171a.
- ^ Condit, Ira J. (1947) The Fig; Chronica Botanica Co., Waltham, Massachusetts, USA.
- ^ Wayne's Word: Sex Determination & Life Cycle in Ficus carica Archived 2009-09-02 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ a b "Fig, Ficus carica". Purdue University: Horticulture & Landscape Architecture. Archived from the original on January 25, 2021. Retrieved December 6, 2014.
- ^ Shannon Wolfe, "Carnivorous Figs: The Relationship Between Wasps and Figs Archived 2016-12-20 at the Wayback Machine", University of California Master Gardener Program of Contra Costa County, 27 August 2014.
- ^ Louise Ferguson and Carlos H. Crisosto, "The Fig: Overview of an Ancient Fruit Archived 2016-10-05 at the Wayback Machine", in HortScience, August 2007, Vol. 42, No. 5, pages 1083–7.
- ^ Blackburne-Maze P (2003). Fruit: an Illustrated History. Buffalo, New York: Firefly Books. pp. 209–11. ISBN 978-1-55297-780-4. Archived from the original on February 27, 2024. Retrieved March 22, 2017.
- ^ "Ficus carica in Flora of China @ efloras.org". www.efloras.org. Archived from the original on 2015-09-24. Retrieved 2015-08-19.
- ^ "Biota of North America Program 2014 county distribution map". Archived from the original on 2015-10-22. Retrieved 2015-08-19.
- ^ Kislev ME, Hartmann A, Bar-Yosef O (2006a). "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley". Science. 312 (5778). Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science: 1372–1374. Bibcode:2006Sci...312.1372K. doi:10.1126/science.1125910. PMID 16741119. S2CID 42150441.
- ^ Kislev ME, Hartmann A, Bar-Yosef O (2006b). "Response to Comment on "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley"". Science. 314 (5806). Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science: 1683b. Bibcode:2006Sci...314.1683K. doi:10.1126/science.1133748. PMID 17170278.
- ^ Lev-Yadun S, Ne'Eman G, Abbo S, Flaishman MA (2006). "Comment on "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley"". Science. 314 (5806). Washington, DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science: 1683a. Bibcode:2006Sci...314.1683L. doi:10.1126/science.1132636. PMID 17170278.
- ^ Goor A (1965). "The History of the Fig in the Holy Land from Ancient Times to the Present Day". Economic Botany. 19 (2): 125 (The Biblical Period). Bibcode:1965EcBot..19..124G. doi:10.1007/BF02862824. JSTOR 4252586. S2CID 34606339.
- ^ Leroi, Armand Marie (2014). The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science. Bloomsbury. pp. 244–247. ISBN 978-1-4088-3622-4.
- ^ Marcus Porcius Cato (1933). Cato, the Censor, on Farming. Translated by Brehaut E. Columbia University Press. p. 19.
VIII. As for figs, plant the marisca fig on clayey, open ground. Plant the African variety and the Herculanean, the Saguntine, the winter fig, and the black, long-stemmed Tellane fig on richer or well-manured soil.
- ^ Mary Beard (2013). Confronting the Classics. Liveright Publishing Corporation, a division of W.W. Norton & Company. p. 128. ISBN 978-0-87140-716-0.
- ^ Cassius Dio. Roman History 56.30.
- ^ Mary Beard (2013). Confronting the Classics. Liveright Publishing Corporation, a division of W.W. Norton & Company. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-87140-716-0.
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