Forced monasticism is the practice of compelling a person to enter a monastic life without their consent. Historically, it was practiced within Christendom in some places during the Middle Ages as a way to neutralize political rivals. In Russian tsardom and Russian empire it survived well into the Modern era, and most Russian Orthodox Church monasteries were built as prisons, as such they were employed later by the Soviet authorities to serve the country's Gulag system.[1]
Background
editMonasticism usually entails people separating themselves from the world in a spiritual sense, by foregoing marriage, property and some personal freedom, in order to more greatly pursue religious devotion and service. Monks and nuns may feel a calling that inspires them to pursue this kind of spiritual life. Usually this choice is made freely without compulsion, however, this has not always been the case in practice.
Among the Merovingians, long hair was a sign of royalty, while in contrast, clerics were tonsured and wore their hair short. In medieval Gaul, if one removed the long hair of a king, you removed his claims to kingship as well.[2] Tonsuring was seen as a more humane method of dealing with rivals or rebels than the death penalty, the decision being left to the clemency or political judgment of the monarch.
Political tonsuring in Medieval Christendom
editDuring the time of the early Frankish kingdoms, the Merovingian dynasty employed forced monasticism against their enemies, including members of their own family.[3]
- Chararic, a king, and his son were both forcibly tonsured by Clovis I after they failed to help Clovis in a war. Both were also forcibly ordained to holy orders. When they tried to resist this and return to secular life, Clovis had them both killed.[4]
- Merovech, son of King Chilperic I of Neustria was forced to accept tonsure and ordination to the priesthood by his father after he tried to marry his late uncle's wife and his father suspected him of betrayal.[5]
- King Theuderic III was tonsured but grew his hair again and regained power.[3]
- Ebroin, Frankish mayor of the palace, was deposed by the Burgundian nobles, but his life was spared at the intervention of a number of bishops; he was tonsured and confined to Luxeuil Abbey.[6]
- In Anglo-Saxon England, Ceolwulf of Northumbria was deposed, forcibly tonsured by his enemies and placed in a monastery, but was quickly restored.[7]
- Theudechild, wife of king Charibert I, was forced into a nunnery after her husband's death.[8]
After the death of Chlodomer, King of Orleans, his brothers Chlothar and Childebert coveted his kingdom and determined to kill Chlodomer's three young sons. The two eldest were murdered, but loyal members of the household were able to bring the youngest, Clodoald to safety. He came to prefer the solitude of life as a hermit rather than the hazards of life at court. When he was twenty he had his hair cut in a public ceremony by the Bishop of Paris, thus demonstrating to his uncles that he sought no part of his father's kingdom and posed no threat.[9]
Forced monachization
editForced monachization was a phenomenon of the early modern period in which elite families would consign a younger sibling to a monastery. This was generally done for economic purposes in order to keep the family estate intact for a primary heir. The individual confined could appeal to church authorities to be released from their vows. [10] The idea of a woman being forced into monastic life has become a trope in nunsploitation films.[11]
Oblates
editChildren vowed and given by their parents to the monastic life, in houses under the Rule of St. Benedict, were commonly known by the name "oblate" during the century and a half when the custom was in vogue. Often the offering was made in completion of a vow, along with a donation towards the child's support. In many cases the family may have already had a connection to the monastery chosen, with a family member serving as abbot or prioress. There the child would be educated. Not professed monks or friars, the Council of Toledo (656) forbade their acceptance before the age of ten and granted them free permission to leave the monastery, if they wished, when they reached the age of puberty. [12] The term puer oblatus (used after that Council) labels an oblate who had not yet reached puberty and thus had a future opportunity to leave the monastery,[13]
Russian Orthodox Church
edit
A number of the Russian Orthodox Church monasteries were employed by the NKVD as prisons for the Soviet prison system, with minor or no refurbishments:
- Achairsky Cross Monastery
- Belopesotsky Monastery
- Golgotha-Raspyatsky Skete
- Catherine's Hermitage
- St. John the Baptist Monastery
- Kirillo-Novoezersky Resurrection Monastery
- Makariyevskaya Hermitage
- St. Michael the Archangel Monastery
- Nilov Monastery
- Novinsky Monastery
- Novospassky Monastery
- Optina Hermitage
- Pertominsky Spaso-Preobrazhensky Monastery
- St. Catherine's Monastery
- Solovetsky Monastery
- Spaso-Preobrazhensky Monastery
- Spaso-Prilutsky Monastery
- Starobelsky Monastery
- Tregulyaevsky St. John the Baptist Monastery
- Kholmogory Dormition Monastery
With Solovetsky and Optina Monastery being the most populous prisons, containing tens of thousands of inmates.
References
edit- ^ The Fate of Russian Orthodox Monasteries and Convents Since 1917 by Charles E. Timberlake, Donald W. Treadgold, 1995.
- ^ Scissors or Sword? The Symbolism of a Medieval Haircut, History Today, retrieved July 7th 2023
- ^ a b Robert Mills, “The Signification of Tonsure,” in Holiness and Masculinity in the Middle Ages, ed. P. H. Cullum and Katherine J. Lewis (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2005), 109–26
- ^ The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. 2, (Henry Melvill Gwatkin et al, eds.), Macmillan, 1913, p. 110
- ^ Gregory of Tours. A history of the Franks. Pantianos Classics, 1916
- ^ Frassetto, Michael. The Early Medieval World: From the Fall of Rome to the Time of Charlemagne ABC-CLIO, 2013, p.237 ISBN 9781598849967
- ^ Stanton, Richard. A Menology of England and Wales, Burns & Oates, 1887, p. 20
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Christian Bouyer, Dictionnaire des Reines de France, Librairie Académique Perrin, 1992 ISBN 2-262-00789-6
- ^ "Saint Cloud, (Saint Clodoald) the Patron Saint of the Diocese of Saint Cloud (522 – c. 560)", Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint Cloud
- ^ Schutte, Anne Jacobson. Forced Monachization, 1668–1793: An Overview', By Force and Fear: Taking and Breaking Monastic Vows in Early Modern Europe, Ithaca, NY, 2011
- ^ La vera storia della monaca di Monza, The True Story of The Nun of Monza, 1980
- ^ Almond, Joseph Cuthbert. "Oblati." The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 11. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911 This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
- ^ Little, A. G. (1932). "Chronological Notes on the Life of Duns Scotus". The English Historical Review. 47 (188). Oxford University Press: 568–582. doi:10.1093/ehr/XLVII.CLXXXVIII.568. JSTOR 553067.
