Fox (known by a variety of different names, including Mesquakie (Meskwaki), Mesquakie-Sauk, Mesquakie-Sauk-Kickapoo, Sauk-Fox, and Sac and Fox) is an Algonquian language, spoken by a thousand Meskwaki, Sauk, and Kickapoo in various locations in the Midwestern United States and in northern Mexico.
| Fox | |
|---|---|
| Meskwaki-Sauk-Kickapoo | |
| Meshkwahkihaki | |
| Native to | United States, Mexico |
| Region | Central Oklahoma, Northeastern Kansas, Iowa, and Coahuila |
| Ethnicity | 760 Meskwaki and Sauk and 820 Kickapoo in the US (2000 census)[1] and 423 Mexican Kickapoo (2010 census)[2] |
Native speakers | 700: 250 Sauk and Fox and 400 Kickapoo in the US (2007–2015)[1] 60 Kickapoo in Mexico (2020 census)[3] |
Algic
| |
| Dialects | |
| Latin, Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | Either:sac – Fox and Saukkic – Kickapoo |
qes Mascouten | |
| Glottolog | foxx1245 |
| ELP | Sauk-Fox |
 Map showing the distribution of Oklahoma Indian Languages | |
 Kickapoo is classified as Severely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger | |
Dialects
editThe three distinct dialects are:
- Fox or Meskwakiatoweni (Meskwaki language)[4] (also called Mesquakie, Meskwaki)
- Sauk or Thâkiwâtowêweni (Thâkîwaki language) (also rendered Sac), and
- Kickapoo or Kiikaapoa (also rendered Kikapú; considered by some to be a closely related but distinct language[5]).
If Kickapoo is counted as a separate language rather than a dialect of Fox, then only between 200 and 300 speakers of Fox remain. Extinct Mascouten was most likely another dialect, though it is scarcely attested.
Revitalization
editMost speakers are elderly or middle-aged, making it highly endangered. The tribal school at the Meskwaki Settlement in Iowa incorporates bilingual education for children.[6][7] In 2011, the Meskwaki Sewing Project was created, to bring mothers and girls together "with elder women in the Meskwaki Senior Center sewing traditional clothing and learning the Meskwaki language."[8]
Prominent scholars doing research on the language include Ives Goddard[9] and Lucy Thomason of the Smithsonian Institution and Amy Dahlstrom of the University of Chicago.
Phonology
editThe consonant phonemes of Fox are given in the table below. The eight vowel phonemes are: short /a, e, i, o/ and long /aː, eː, iː, oː/.
| Labial | Alveolar | Postalveolar or palatal |
Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m | n | ||||
| Plosive | plain | p | t | tʃ | k | |
| preaspirated | ʰp | ʰt | ʰtʃ | ʰk | ||
| Fricative | s | ʃ | h | |||
| Approximant | j | w | ||||
Other than those involving a consonant plus /j/ or /w/, the only possible consonant cluster is /ʃk/.
Until the early 1900s, Fox was a phonologically very conservative language and preserved many features of Proto-Algonquian; records from the decades immediately following 1900 are particularly useful to Algonquianists for this reason. By the 1960s, however, an extensive progression of phonological changes had taken place, resulting in the loss of intervocalic semivowels and certain other features.[10]
Grammar
editAccording to A Concise Dictionary of the Sauk Language by Gordon Whittaker[11], the language's nouns can be divided into animate and inanimate groups. Animate nouns end in -a (ex: tîtîwa /ˈti:.ti:.wa/, "blue jay (bird)"). To pluralise most animate nouns, the ending is transformed from -a to -aki (ex: tîtîwa -> tîtîwaki). The few exceptions that exist have specific forms, according to the Dictionary.
Inanimate nouns typically end in -i (ex: mâtethi /ˈma:.tet.hi/, "knife"). To pluralise most inanimate nouns, the ending is transformed from -i to -ani (ex: mâtethi -> mâtethani). Like the animate nouns, the few exceptions that exist also have specific forms, according to the Dictionary.[12]
Verbs can be divided into transitive and intransitive; transitive involves two parties (i.e "I give it to you!" / "Kemînêwene!"), while intransitive is one party (i.e "You're alive." / "Kepemâtethi.")
| Subject | Verb (Sauk) | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| ne(t)- (I/me) | nepemâtethi | I am alive |
| ke(t)- (you) | kepemâtethi | you are alive |
| -wa (s/he) | pemâtethiwa | s/he is alive |
| ne(t)- ... -pena (we [exclusive]) | nepemâtethipena | we (exclusive; think "We, but not YOU.") are alive |
| ke(t)- ... -pena (we [inclusive]) | kepemâtethipena | we (inclusive; think "We and you.") are alive |
| ke(t)- ... -pwa (you [plural]) | kepemâtethipwa | you (plural) are alive; you all are alive |
| -waki (they) | pemâtethiwaki | they are alive |
| Subject | Verb (Sauk) | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| -wi (it) | kehkyêwi | it is old |
| -wani (they [inanimate]) | kehkyâhiwani | they (inanim.) are old |
| Subject | Verb (Sauk) | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| ke(t)- ... -ene (I -> you) | netahkawâpatene | I take care of you (ahkawâpatamwa can also mean to watch out [for] / look out [for]) |
| ke(t)- ... -enepwa (I -> you [plural]) | netahkawâpatenepwa | I take care of you (plural); I take care of you all |
| ne(t)- ... -âwa (I -> him/her) | netahkawâpatâwa | I take care of him/her |
| ne(t)- ... -âwaki (I -> them) | netahkawâpatâwaki | I take care of them |
| ke(t)- ... -i (you -> me) | ketahkawâpati | you take care of me |
| ke(t)- ... -âwa (you -> him/her) | ketahkawâpatâwa | you take care of him/her |
| ke(t)- ... -ipena (you -> us) | ketahkawâpatipena | you take care of us |
| ke(t)- ... -enepena (we -> you) | ketahkawâpatenepena | we take care of you |
| ne(t)- ... -ekwa (s/he -> me) | netahkawâpatekwa | s/he takes care of me |
| ke(t)- ... -ekwa (s/he -> you) | ketahkawâpatekwa | s/he takes care of you |
| -êwa (s/he -> him/her/them) | ahkawâpatêwa | s/he takes care of him/her/them |
| ne(t)- ... -ekonâna (s/he -> us [exc.]) | netahkawâpatekonâna | s/he takes care of us (exc.) |
| ke(t)- ... -ekonâna (s/he -> us [inc.]) | ketahkawâpatekonâna | s/he takes care of us (inc.) |
| ke(t)- ... -ekowâwa (s/he -> you [plural]) | ketahkawâpatekowâwa | s/he takes care of you (plural); s/he takes care of you all |
| ne(t)- ... -âpena (we [exc.] -> him/her/them) | netahkawâpatâpena | we (exc.) take care of him/her/them |
| ke(t)- ... -âpena (we [inc.] -> him/her/them) | ketahkawâpatâpena | we (inc.) take care of him/her/them |
| ke(t)- ... -ipwa (you [plural] -> me) | ketahkawâpatipwa | you (plural) take care of me; you all take care of me |
| ke(t)- ... -âpwa (you [plural] -> him/her/them) | ketahkawâpatâpwa | you (plural) take care of him/her/them; you all take care of him/her/them |
| ne(t)- ... -ekôki (they -> me) | netahkawâpatekôki | they take care of me |
| ke(t)- ... -ekôki (they -> you) | ketahkawâpatekôki | they take care of you |
| -êwaki (they -> him/her/them) | ahkawâpatêwaki | they take care of him/her/them |
| ne(t)- ... -ekonânaki (they -> us [exc.]) | netahkawâpatekonânaki | they take care of us (exc.) |
| ke(t)- ... -ekonânaki (they -> us [inc.]) | ketahkawâpatekonânaki | they take care of us (inc.) |
| ke(t)- ... -ekowâwaki (they -> you [plural]) | ketahkawâpatekowâwaki | they take care of you (plural); they take care of you all |
| Subject | Verb (Sauk) | Translation |
|---|---|---|
| ne(t)- ... -a (I -> it/them) | netahkawâpata | I take care of it/them (ahkawâpatamwa can also mean to watch out [for] / look out [for]) |
| ke(t)- ... -a (You -> it/them) | ketahkawâpata | You take care of it/them |
| -amwa (S/He -> it/them) | ahkawâpatamwa | S/He takes care of it/them |
| ne(t)- ... -âpena (We [exc.] -> it/them) | netahkawâpatâpena | We (exc.) take care of it/them |
| ke(t)- ... -âpena (We [inc.] -> it/them) | ketahkawâpatâpena | We (inc.) take care of it/them |
| ke(t)- ... -âpwa (You [plural] -> it/them) | ketahkawâpatâpwa | You [plural] take care of it/them |
| -âmoki (They -> it/them) | ahkawâpatamwâmoki | They take care of it/them |
This conjugation is only for verbs that end in -amwa; all other animate transitive verbs take the same conjugation as the animate intransitive verbs.[13]
Vocabulary
editMesquakie numerals are as follows:[14]
| nekoti | one |
| nîshwi | two |
| nethwi | three |
| nyêwi | four |
| nyânanwi | five |
| nekotwâshika | six |
| nôhika | seven |
| neshwâshika | eight |
| shâka | nine |
| metâthwi | ten |
Writing systems
edit
Besides the Latin script, Fox has been written in two indigenous scripts.[15]
Fox I
edit
"Fox I" is an abugida based on the cursive French alphabet (see Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics). Consonants written by themselves are understood to be syllables containing the vowel /a/. They are:
| ℓ[a] | /pa/ |
| t | /ta/ |
| s | /sa/ |
| d | /ʃa/[b] |
| tt | /tʃa/[c] |
| ŋ[d] | /ya/ |
| w | /wa/ |
| m | /ma/ |
| n | /na/ |
| K | /ka/ |
| g[e] | /kwa/[f] |
- ^ Written as a tall loop, similar to a cursive b or l.
- ^ Character ⟨d⟩ for /š/ derives from French ⟨ch⟩.
- ^ Character ⟨tt⟩ for /č/ derives from French ⟨tch⟩.
- ^ The cursive form of capital I is a more graphically accurate approximation for /ya/; the actual character is a small clockwise loop with a long tail.
- ^ The actual character for /gwa/ or /kwa/ is shaped more like a cursive g or a with a long, winding tail that goes in a loop, almost like a figure-8 shape.
- ^ Character ⟨q⟩ for /kw/ derives from French ⟨q(u)⟩.
Vowels are written by adding dots to the consonant:
| ℓ | /pa/ |
| ℓ. | /pe/ |
| ℓ· | /pi/ |
| ℓ.. | /po/ |
Fox II
edit
"Fox II" is a consonant–vowel alphabet. According to Coulmas, /p/ is not written (as /a/ is not written in Fox I). Vowels (or /p/ plus a vowel) are written as cross-hatched tally marks.
| + | /t/ |
| C | /s/ |
| Q | /ʃ/ |
| ı | /tʃ/ |
| ñ | /v/[a] |
| ═ | /y/ |
| ƧƧ | /w/ |
| 田 | /m/ |
| # | /n/ |
| C′ | /k/ |
| ƧC | /kw/ |
| × | /a/ |
| /e/[b] | |
| /i/[c] | |
| /o/[d] |
- ^ Actually like one script n stacked on another.
- ^ If the cross-hatching does not show up (perhaps because this line has been copied without formatting), this is like a small capital H with the cross-bar sticking out on either side.
- ^ Resembles Chinese 卅 but lower and wider.
- ^ Resembles Chinese 卌, but lower and wider.
See also
edit
Notes
edit- ^ a b Fox and Sauk at Ethnologue (24th ed., 2021)
Kickapoo at Ethnologue (24th ed., 2021)
- ^ Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía. (2015). Lenguas indígenas en México y hablantes (de 3 años y más) al 2015. Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Lenguas indígenas y hablantes de 3 años y más, 2020 Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine INEGI. Censo de Población y Vivienda 2020.
- ^ "Meskwaki Settlement School - Meskwakiatoweni (Meskwaki language)". Archived from the original on 2019-07-23. Retrieved 2019-07-23.
- ^ Moctezuma Zamarrón, José Luis 2011, El sistema fonológico del Kickapoo de Coahuila analizado desde las metodologías distribucional y funcional Archived 2014-03-04 at the Wayback Machine. México: INALI
- ^ Meskwaki Settlement School Website, "Meskwaki Settlement School Website". Archived from the original on 2009-02-16. Retrieved 2009-02-03.
- ^ "Meskwaki Education Network Initiative (MENWI)". American Indian Studies Research Institute at Indiana University. Archived from the original on 2004-01-03. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
- ^ Scandale, Maria (2011-02-21). "Meskwaki Tribe Receives Grant for Sewing and Language Project - ICTMN.com". Indian Country Today Media Network, ICTMN.com. Archived from the original on 2024-05-26. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
- ^ Nelson, John (2008-07-27). "Talking the talk". WCFCourier.com. Archived from the original on 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
- ^ Language change in the speech community: change by loss of a stylistic register, in Historical Linguistics: Toward a Twenty-First Century Reintegration (ISBN 0521583322), page 57
- ^ Whittaker, Gordon (2005). A Concise Dictionary of the Sauk Language (in eng) (1st ed.). Stroud, Oklahoma: The Sac & Fox National Public Library.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ Whittaker, Gordon (2005). A Concise Dictionary of the Sauk Language (in eng) (1st ed.). Stroud, Oklahoma: The Sac & Fox National Public Library. pp. 7–8.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ Whittaker, Gordon (2005). A Concise Dictionary of the Sauk Language (in eng) (First ed.). Stroud, Oklahoma: The Sac & Fox National Public Library. p. 13.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - ^ Sauk Counting Worksheet (Sac and Fox). Retrieved 17 March 2019 from http://www.native-languages.org/numbers/sauk_numbers.htm Archived 2019-10-28 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Coulmas (1999: 153–155)
- ^ Jones, William, 1906, p. 90
- ^ Jones, William, 1906, pp. 90-91
References
edit- Bloomfield, Leonard (1925). "Notes on the Fox Language". International Journal of American Linguistics. 3 (2/4): 219–232. doi:10.1086/463756.
- Coulmas, Florian (1999). The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Writing Systems. Blackwell Publishing.
- Dahlstrom, Amy. "Meskwaki Syntax (Manuscript)". Lucian. University of Chicago.
- Goddard, Ives (1991). "Observations Regarding Fox (Mesquakie) Phonology". Papers of the Twenty-Second Algonquian Conference. 22: 157–181.
- Jones, William (1906). "An Algonquian syllabary". In Lanfer, Berthold (ed.). Boas anniversary volume: Anthropological papers written in honor of Franz Boas. New York: G.E. Stechert. pp. 88–93.
- Voorhis, Paul H. (1974). Introduction to the Kickapoo Language. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-87750-177-0.
External links
edit- Native Languages of the Americas: Mesquakie-Sauk
- Fox texts (1907), ed. William Jones
- The Owl Sacred Pack of the Fox Indians (1921), ed. Truman Michelson
- The Autobiography of a Fox Indian Woman (1895), ed. Truman Michelson
- "Last Meskwaki code talker remembers". USATODAY.com. 2002-07-04. Retrieved 2012-07-19.
- Meskwaki Language - Alphabet
- OLAC resources in and about the Meskwaki language
- OLAC resources in and about the Kickapoo language
- A Concise Dictionary of the Sauk Language Archived 2020-10-29 at the Wayback Machine , 2005, Gordon Whittaker, The Sac & Fox National Public Library, Stroud, Oklahoma