There have been many debates on the social effects of video games on players and broader society, as well as debates within the video game industry. Since the early 2000s, advocates of video games have emphasized their use as an expressive medium, arguing for their protection under the laws governing freedom of speech and also as an educational tool. Detractors argue that video games are harmful and therefore should be subject to legislative oversight and restrictions. The positive and alleged negative characteristics and effects of video games are the subject of scientific study. Academic research has examined the links between video games and addiction, aggression, violence, social development, and a variety of stereotyping and sexual morality issues.[1][page needed]
Areas of controversy
editRelated to video game content
editViolence
editVideo games since their inception have been the subject of concern due to the depictions of violence they may contain, which have heightened as the technology behind video games improves the amount of visual detail and realism of games. Video games are often seen as a possible cause to violent actions, notably in the aftermath of the 1999 Columbine High School massacre, but academic studies have yet to identify solid evidences linking violence in video games and violent behavior. The American Psychological Association stated, in 2015, that a correlation between the use of violent video games and aggressive behavior was observed. However, it was noted, "the interpretations of these effects have varied dramatically, contributing to the public debate about the effects of violent video games."[2] In 2017, Division 46 (Society for Media Psychology and Technology) of the American Psychological Association stated that "Scant evidence has emerged that makes any causal or correlational connection between playing violent video games and actually committing violent activities."[3] Despite the lack of solid evidence and academic consensus, politicians and activists have sought for ways to restrict the sale of violent video games, particularly to minors, on the basis that they can lead to violent behavior.[4][5] Within the United States, the issues of video game sales regulation led to both the formation of the Entertainment Software Rating Board in 1994,[6][7] and the 2011 Supreme Court of the United States landmark case Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association that ruled that video games are a protected class of free speech and blocking legislation on such sales restrictions.[8] According to The Pew Research Center, in 2008, a study found that 97% of kids from the ages 12–17 engaged with video games, and two-thirds of the kids in the study played some sort of action or adventure game which tended to contain violent content. Another analysis discovered that more than 50% of all games rated by ESRB included violence, which encompasses more than 90% of the games rated as suitable for kids 10 years or older.[9]
Sexual themes
editTolerance of sexual themes in video games varies between nations. Controversy over sexual themes has occurred in the US. For instance, in June 2005, an entire portion of unused code was found within the main script of Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas, allowing the player to simulate sexual intercourse with the main character's girlfriends. This mode, Hot Coffee, could be accessed in the PC version via mod, and through Action Replay codes in the PS2 and Xbox versions.[10] The scene was left on the disc and could be accessed by altering a few bytes of the game's code via a hex editor. This feature prompted the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) to change the rating of San Andreas on 20 July 2005 to "adults only". Furthermore, the game was withdrawn from sale in many stores. Rockstar Games posted a loss of $28.8 million in that financial quarter. This event was dubbed the Hot Coffee mod controversy.[11]
In Japan, controversy over an eroge called Rape in 1989 led to the game being banned a few months after its release.[12] The game RapeLay, a Japanese eroge with a storyline centering on the player's character stalking and raping a mother and her two daughters, also caused controversy. Campaigns against the sale of the game resulted in its being banned in many countries. RapeLay's publisher, which intended the game only to be available in Japan, withdrew it from distribution.[13]
Since 2018, Sony has now issued new regulations for PlayStation 4 games with sexual content and fan service. For the localized release of Senran Kagura Burst Re: Newal, "Intimacy Mode", a mode where the player can play with the characters' bodies was removed, but by comparison, the same mode that was featured in previous titles like Senran Kagura: Estival Versus and Senran Kagura: Peach Beach Splash was not removed. PC release of Burst Re: Newal was not changed.[14] The PS4 release of Nekopara Vol. 1 was censored for similar reasons, resulting in the game receiving an "E" rating by the ESRB by comparison to the "M" rating for versions on Nintendo Switch and PC.[15] Sony claimed it was their decision to ban Omega Labyrinth Z outside of Japan due to its content.[16] According to Idea Factory International, the localized release of Date a Live: Rio Reincarnation will feature changes to certain event scenes and removal of illustrations that show characters in suggestive positions, although the PC version won't be changed.[citation needed]
Content regulation and censorship
editSupport for video game regulation has been linked to moral panic.[17] Even so, governments have enacted, or have tried to enact, legislation that regulates distribution of video games through censorship based on content rating systems or banning.[18][19][20][21] In 2005, David Gauntlett claimed that grant funding, news headlines, and professional prestige more commonly go to authors who, in good faith, promote anti-media beliefs.[22] Tom Grimes, James A. Anderson, and Lori Bergen reiterated these claims in a 2008 book examining sociological effects on the production of media effects research.[23]
In 2013, the Entertainment Software Association, the lobbying group for the video game industry, had enlisted over 500,000 members to the "Video Game Voters Network", a "grassroots" lobbying group to mobilize gamers to act against public policy that may negatively impact the gaming industry.[24] The VGV was launched in 2006 by the ESA, and uses social media sites like Facebook and Twitter to inform members of allies and opponents.[25] In 2013, the ESA spent over US$3.9 million on lobbying, including but not limited to against VGV legislation. This included opposing a bipartisan federal bill that would direct the National Academy of Sciences to study the effects of all forms of violent media.[26] Such bills themselves had come under criticisms from some scholars for pressuring scientists to find specific outcomes rather than studying the issues neutrally.[27][28]
Video game consoles were banned in Mainland China in June 2000.[29][30] This ban was finally lifted in January 2014. However, the Chinese would still police video games which would be "hostile to China or not in conformity with the outlook of China's government". Reported by Bloomberg, metaphorically speaking, Cai Wu, head of China's Ministry of Culture, said "We want to open the window a crack to get some fresh air, but we still need a screen to block the flies and mosquitoes."[31] Display of red blood is prohibited in video games produced and sold in China.[32]
Voluntary regulation
editVoluntary rating systems adopted by the video game industry, such as the ESRB rating system in the United States and Canada (established in 1994),[33] and the Pan European Game Information (PEGI) rating system in Europe (established in 2003), are aimed at informing parents about the types of games their children are playing (or are asking to play).[citation needed] Some ratings of controversial games indicate they are not targeted at young children ("Mature" (M) or "Adults Only" (AO) in the US, or 15 or 18 in the UK). The packaging warns such games should not be sold to children. In the US, ESRB ratings are not legally binding, but many retailers take it upon themselves to refuse the sale of these games to minors.[34] In the United Kingdom (UK), the BBFC ratings are legally binding. UK retailers also enforce the PEGI ratings, which are not legally binding.[35]
US government legislation
editNo video game console manufacturer has allowed any game marked AO to be published in North America; however, the PC gaming service Steam has allowed AO titles such as Hatred to be published on its platform. No major retailers are willing to sell AO-rated games. However, Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas was rated AO after the presence of the Hot Coffee add-on became evident. The add-on was later removed and the game rated M.[36] In the 109th Congress and 110th Congress, the Video Games Enforcement Act was introduced to the US House of Representatives. The act required an identification check for the purchase of M and AO rated games. The bill and others like it did not succeed because of likely First Amendment violations.[37][38] Although no law mandates identification checking for games with adult content, a 2008 survey by the Federal Trade Commission showed that video game retailers have voluntarily increased ID verification for M- and AO-rated games, and sales of those games to underage potential buyers decreased from 83% in 2000 to 20% in 2008.[39] A further survey in April 2011, found that video game retailers continued to enforce the ratings by allowing only 13% of underage teenage shoppers to buy M-rated video games, a statistically significant decrease from the 20% purchase rate in 2009.[40]
On 7 January 2009, Joe Baca, representative of California's 43rd District, introduced H.R. 231, the Video game health labelling act. This bill called for a label to be placed in a "clear and conspicuous location on the packaging" on all video games with an ESRB rating of T (Teen) or higher stating, "WARNING: Excessive exposure to violent video games and other violent media has been linked to aggressive behavior."[41][42] The proposed legislation was referred to the Subcommittee on Commerce, Trade and Consumer Protection. On 24 January 2011, Joe Baca reintroduced the Video game health labelling act as H.R. 400 of the 112th Congress.[43] The bill was once again passed onto the subcommittee.
On 27 June 2011, the Supreme Court of the United States ruled on Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association. Video games were protected speech under the First Amendment. The case centered on a California law that sought to restrict sales of violent video games to minors. The video game industry, led by the Entertainment Merchants Association and the Entertainment Software Association, successfully obtained an injunction on the bill, believing that the definition of violence as stated in the California law was too vague and would not treat video games as protected speech. This opinion was upheld in lower courts, and supported by the Supreme Court's decision. The majority of the justices did not consider the studies brought to their attention as convincing evidence of harm, and stated that they could not create a new class of restricted speech that was not applied to other forms of media.[44][45][46] However, Justice Breyer's minority decision found the evidence more convincing.[47]
Deana Pollard Sacks, Brad Bushman, and Craig A. Anderson objected to the ruling, claiming that the thirteen experts who authored the Statement on Video Game Violence on the Brown side were considerably more academically merited, and had on average authored over 28 times as many peer-reviewed journal articles about aggression/violence based on original empirical research as the signatories supporting the EMA, whereas the over 100 signatories supporting Brown had on average authored over 14 times as many.[48] Richard Hall, Ryan Hall, and Terri Day replied: "It is not surprising that Anderson and Bushman found their own qualifications and the qualifications of those who agree with them to be superior to the qualifications of those who disagree with them", and claimed that they might have used methodology which have undercounted contributions of some scholars.[49] On 3 April 2013, Dianne Feinstein, a Californian senator and Democrat, spoke in San Francisco to a group of 500 constituents about gun violence. She said video games have "a very negative role for young people, and the industry ought to take note of that" and that Congress might have to step in if the video game industry did not cease to glorify guns.[50]
Portrayal of religion
editWhile religion is seen as a serious topic, video games are considered entertainment.[51] As such, the use of religion and religious motifs in video games can sometimes be controversial. For example, Hitman 2: Silent Assassin (2002) sparked controversy due to a level featuring the killing of Sikhs within a depiction of their most holy site, the Harmandir Sahib.[52]
Portrayal of gender
editSome scholars have expressed the concern that video games may have the effect of reinforcing sexist stereotypes.[53] In 1998, a study by Dietz, conducted at the University of Central Florida, found that of thirty-three games sampled, 41% did not feature female characters, 28% sexually objectified women, 21% depicted violence against women, and 30% did not represent the female population at all. Furthermore, characterizations of women tended to be stereotypical: highly sexualized ("visions of beauty with large breasts and hips"), dependent ("victim or as the proverbial Damsel in Distress"), opponents ("evil or as obstacles to the goal of the game"), and trivial ("females depicted in fairly non-significant roles").[54] However, the study is criticized for not including a wide range of video games for study and for including old games published up to twenty years ago which do not represent current industry standards[citation needed], for example, an increased presence of strong female characters.[55][56]
In 2002, Kennedy considered the characteristics of the character, Lara Croft in the Tomb Raider video game series. She is presented as a beautiful, clever, athletic, and brave English archaeologist-adventurer. Lara Croft has achieved popularity with both males and females as an action heroine, although depending on what perspective is applied she can either represent 'a positive role model for young girls' or a 'combination of eye and thumb candy for the boys'.[57] Dietz's findings are supported by a survey commissioned in 2003 by Children Now. The survey found that gender stereotypes pervade most video games: male characters (52%) were more likely than females (32%) to engage in physical aggression; nearly 20% of female characters were hyper-sexualized in some way, while 35% of male characters were extremely muscular.[58][page needed]
In 2004, the game developer, Eidos, remodeled Lara Croft for Tomb Raider: Legend. The character was modified to have a more believable figure with less revealing clothing.[59] In 2005, Terry Flew, academic, expressed a similar opinion: gender bias and stereotyping exists in many games. Male characters are portrayed as hard bodied, muscled men while female characters are portrayed as soft bodied, nearly naked women with large breasts, portrayed in a narrowly stereotypical manner. Females are usually constructed as visual objects in need of protection who wait for male rescue, whereas men are portrayed with more power. According to Flew, such depiction of females in games reflects underlying social ideas of male dominance and themes of masculinity. Although not all video games contain such stereotypes, Flew suggests that there are enough to make it a general trait and that "...different genders have different gaming."[60][page needed]
Portrayal of sexual orientation and gender identity
editLesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) characters have been depicted in some video games since the 1980s, with Caper in the Castro in 1989 as one of the first games focusing on LGBT themes.[61] LGBT content has been subject to changing rules and regulations by game companies.[62] These rules are generally examples of heterosexism in that heterosexuality is normalized while homosexuality is subject to additional censorship or ridicule.[63][64] Sexual orientation and gender identity were significant in some console and PC games, with the trend being toward greater visibility of LGBT identities, particularly in Japanese popular culture[65] and games marketed to LGBT consumers.[66][67][68]
Portrayal of race, nationality, and ethnicity
editVideo games may influence the learning of young players about race and urban culture.[69] The portrayal of race in some video games such as the Grand Theft Auto series, Custer's Revenge, 50 Cent: Bulletproof[citation needed], and Def Jam: Fight for NY[citation needed] has been controversial. The 2002 game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City was criticized as promoting racist hate crime. The game takes place in 1986, in "Vice City", a fictionalized Miami. It involves a gang war between Haitian and Cuban refugees which involves the player's character.[70][71] However, it is possible to play the game without excessive killing.[72] The 2009 game Resident Evil 5 is set in Africa, and as such has the player kill numerous African antagonists. In response to criticism, promoters of Resident Evil 5 argued that to censor the portrayal of black antagonists was discrimination in itself.[73]
War-themed video games such as Medal of Honor: Warfighter and Call of Duty: Black Ops II have been criticized for how they portray Arab people and predominantly Islamic countries like Pakistan.[74]
Related to video game culture
editGaming addiction, gaming disorder, and other health-related concerns
editVideo game addiction is the excessive or compulsive use of computer and video games that interferes with daily life. Instances have been reported in which users play compulsively, isolating themselves from family and friends or from other forms of social contact, and focus almost entirely on in-game achievements rather than broader life events.[75][76] The first video game to attract political controversy for its "addictive properties" was the 1978 arcade game Space Invaders.[77][78] One study from Chung Ang University observed that other structures affected by the excessive use of video games include the anterior cingulate cortex and orbitofrontal cortex.[79] The results from this experiment suggest an increase in stimulation of these areas, resembling a pattern similar to those with substance dependence. Researchers interpreted their results of this increase in activity of the anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal cortices to be an indication of an early stage of video game addiction.[79]
The World Health Organization has included "gaming disorder" in the 11th edition of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, which was approved by May 2019.[80][81][82] It was defined as "a pattern of persistent or recurrent gaming behaviour ('digital gaming' or 'video-gaming')", defined by three criteria: the lack of control of playing video games, priority given to video games over other interests, and inability to stop playing video games even after being affected by negative consequences.[83] The addition was contested by the video game industry and several academics, believing that its inclusion was too early and that more studies were needed.[84]
Outside of mental health, medical researchers are concerned that long-term playing of video games can lead to musculoskeletal issues, vision impairment, and obesity.
Gaming culture and online harassment
editA further issue that can occur through gaming is online harassment or bullying behaviors. Esports communities seem to be particularly suffering from toxic behaviors. Especially in competitive esports games, negative behavior, such as harassment, can create barriers to players achieving high performance and can reduce players' enjoyment which may cause them to leave the game.[85] With its largely young, male-dominated population, gamers may exhibit habits and behaviors sometimes seen by outside groups as toxic and misogynistic, leading to harassment of other players.[86] A specific example of harassing behavior occurring within a game can be found in Xbox Live services. With its online chat and party system, this leaves the service open to unwanted harassment, trolling, or bullying to occur between players. To address these concerns, Microsoft made improvements with reputation levels for a player's Xbox Live account. The system is set to warn, then punish bad behavior in hopes of better regulating Xbox Live accounts.[87]
The anonymous nature of the internet may be a factor of encouraging anti-social behavior. This type of behavior expands to other parts of the internet separate from gaming, such as online forums, social media sites, etc. Lack of accountability for one's actions on the internet may encourage others to engage in harassing behavior. Without minimal threat of punishment, some may find it easier to carry out negative behavior over online gaming.[88] The Gamergate controversy that started in 2014 drew media attention to the negative portions of the culture of the video game community, highlighting the need to take steps against online harassment.[89]
Regarding whether attitudes towards women in games and gaming culture extend as far as misogyny, opinions have been divided. For example, VentureBeat writer Rus McLaughlin sees it as a status quo "ingrained in video-game DNA",[90] while Joe Yang (writing for the same source) regards such claims to be misleading, and sees misogyny as a problem where it does occur, but disputes that it is inherent or normative, or that the whole culture should be described that way.[91] In the gaming industry, 48 percent of female gamers have report receiving harassment based on their gender.[92] A survey conducted in the United States, Germany and China found that 59 per cent of women hide their gender to avoid harassment.[93][94]
A further issue related to online behavior is the presence of younger players who may be exposed to behaviors of more mature players beyond the ability for parents to control this exposure, coupled with issues such as harassment and bullying. In the past, this has typically been controlled through the closed online environments from each of the major console systems that could maintain a safe environment, but with the wider availability of cross-platform play to allow console players on one system to play with those on other systems or with players on personal computers, these environments are no longer as controlled.[95] In December 2020, the three major console manufacturers Microsoft, Sony, and Nintendo announced a joint plan to promote safer gaming based on the three principles of prevention, partnership, and responsibility to combat harassing and troubling behavior.[96]
Video game impacts on youth
editRelated to video game content (particularly violence), gaming addiction, and online harassment, there is ongoing concern that video games may have a negative impact on the development of children. Video games are commonly marketed towards younger audiences, and in a 2008 Pew Research Center study, 97% of teenagers from ages 12 to 17 played video games, with games featuring violent content generally among the preferred types of games these minors played.[9] Many of the studies related to linking violence and gambling addiction to video games are performed in consideration of how younger minds can be more susceptible to the possible effects. There has also been studies to try to consider positive effects of video games on youth development, since they encourage cognitive skills and thinking and cooperative participation.[97]
Some countries have adopted laws or regulations to limit minors' access to video games. Most notably is China, which was the first country to classify video games as having potentially addictive measures in 2008.[98] Since 2005, China has passed regulations that are aimed to regulate how long a minor can play a video game, with new regulations imposing more stricter means to track this. As of 2019, the current Chinese law limits minors to 90 minutes of video games each weekday, and three hours on weekends.[99][100] Other countries enforce content limits for video games that may be purchased by minors. The Australian Classification Board's content ratings have legal weight, preventing games that are refused classification from being sold and requiring strict checks on a purchaser's age for those given a rating of MA15+, R18+, or X18+.[101][102] Germany's Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle also has similar restrictions on retail of games that are considered harmful to minors. Otherwise, these content rating systems are used as guidelines that are otherwise not directly enforceable, but typically still practiced in retail to prevent direct sale of mature titles to minors. For example, with the U.S.'s ESRB system, retailers generally will check age identification before selling M (mature) rated games to minors, and will refuse to stock AO (Adults Only) games.[103]
Other options to monitor and regulation video game playing by youth are given through parental controls implemented in hardware or software. According to the Entertainment Software Association (ESA) and the Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB), parents believe that parental controls on gaming consoles are useful.[104] Parents have resources they can use to gain more knowledge about the media that their children are consuming. Researchers of video game violence, Dr. Cheryl Olson and Dr. Lawrence Kutner, have compiled a list of advice for parents who want to better monitor their children.[105] The Entertainment Software Rating Board provides easy access to the ratings of a large database of video games.[106] Common Sense Media is database which shows the ratings of movies, games, TV shows, and other media. For each piece of media, it lists a suggested age rating, and scales that measure positive messages, language, violence, drug use, and consumerism. It also provides a summary of the content of the media from a fellow-parent's perspective.[107] The ESRB's website states that "Our rating system was established with the help of child development and academic experts, based on an analysis of other rating systems and what kind of information is valuable to parents. We found that consumers respond best to an age-based rating system that includes information about the content of a game. As games evolved, we found that parents place equal importance on understanding the ways in which some [video] games are played, such as interacting with others online and spending money on in-game items."[108]
Alt-right and far-right associations
editA connection between video gaming and the alt-right has been suggested, tied to the Gamergate controversy in 2014, which contributed to a culture war at that time that continued with the election of Donald Trump as United States President.[109][110][111] The interactivity of video games may encourage players to gain enjoyment from far-right themes, which may potentially lead them to be more open to the extreme right positions, effectively being an incubator for the far right.[112] Based on this, some alt- and far-right groups have been discovered to be organizing efforts to reach out to other players in various competitive online games and forums, typically to the younger and male ones, to indoctrinate them into their ways of thinking. Since these game chats and forums typically go unmoderated, it has been difficult to detect and prevent such recruitment from occurring.[113][114][115] This has further been pushed by violent events, such as the 2017 Unite the Right rally where the Discord chat application developed for video game players was found to be hosting the far-right groups that were planning the rally.[116] A 2021 report by the Institute for Strategic Dialogue found that gaming services like Steam, Discord, DLive, and Twitch had drawn groups of far-right and neo-Nazi people together in shared communities, some which try to use propaganda to recruit new members but most as a means for the multinational groups to congregate. The Institute found that Steam had the largest population of such groups, attributed to the lack of moderation used on the service's social features.[117]
Video game advocates have challenged the notion that video games are inherently right-wing. They argue games may allow play towards what would be alt- or far-right actions, but they can also be played to more liberal goals as well, and it is how the player chooses to play that should be of concern.[118] Advocates caution that there is a lack of scale in the concerns raised; not all games foster the environments that would promote alt-right ideals or recruits, and many games are apolitical, simply meant to be enjoyed.[119]
Criminal activity, online safety, and cybersecurity
editOther common occurrences include online casino scams, phishing, cell phone dialers, malware in illegal downloads,[120][121][122][123] and money laundering.[124] Others have found ways to use a built-in systems for illegal profit, notably the use of skin gambling tied to games like Counter-Strike: Global Offensive drew attention to how in-game virtual items could be used for gambling for real-world funds.
Players have increasingly been targeted by cybercriminals. According to cybersecurity firm Akamai, between July 2018 and June 2020, 1 in 10 of the 100 billion credential stuffing attacks recorded were targeted at the video game industry and its players, along with 1.4 in 10 of the web application attacks (152 million out of 10.6 billion). Cybercriminals attack video game players to steal their credentials, ID or data, as well as to steal payment card details or cash held in gaming accounts. Part of the motivation for attacking players is that they are seen as both a honeypot (they have something worth stealing), are a relatively vulnerable target (because many are young people or children) and some of their activities increase the opportunity to attack them (social behaviour, accessing cheats, downloading and sharing free games).[125] Sometimes the target of attacks is not the players themselves but the companies who produce the games, with cybersecurity researchers finding over a million compromised corporate accounts of game companies in January 2021.[126]
Cyber attacks targeted at this sector include:
- DDoS attacks - according to NexusGuard, DDoS attacks increased by 287% in Q3 2020 and 77% of these attacks targeted the online gaming and gambling industries[127]
- Teslacrypt, a ransomware attack that stops players from playing their favourite games unless they pay.[128]
- ESEA hack compromised 1,503,707 player profiles leaving them open to further attacks and exploitation[129]
- Syrk, a type of ransomware attack, which was disguised as a Fortnite cheat hack and which encrypts players’ files and deletes them every two hours until they pay.[130]
Cheating
editVideo games have nearly always been subject to cheating by players. Early on, prior to online games, cheating had little impact to other players and was considered innocuous: players would find secret cheat codes in games typically left as testing codes by the developer (such as the Konami code that would give them numerous lives or other bonuses), or there were devices that could edit a game cartridge's memory on the fly, such as the Game Genie. Players often developed trainers to extend options and give a player additional cheats for games with more advanced personal computer games. These cheats would allow players to complete games, and rarely would have any further advantage for the player.
As multiplayer games developed which used a client-server architecture, certain players began developing a number of tools like aimbots and wallhacks that modified the game on the client side for the benefit of that player, giving them an advantage over others. With the potential to earn in-game or real-world prizes within virtual economies from online games, these tools became more sophisticated with more and more features, with developers charging money to use these tools. This in turn led to game and middleware developers creating anti-cheat technology solutions to try to detect when these tools were being used to automatically ban such players from the game. This has led to a constant battle between the game developers and publishers to eliminate cheaters from their games, and cheat creators to find new methods to bypass these automated detection tools. As these cheats often violate acceptable use policies and other conditions for using the game, developers and publishers have also been successful in litigation against cheat developers as another means to stop their use.[131]
Related to cheating are similar means of exploiting video games for financial gains. Examples of such include gold farming, paying low-income labors to level characters or earn in-game items that can then be sold to players at a profit, and twinking or smurfing, paying skilled players to quickly level low-level characters.
Related to the video game industry
editWorkplace concerns
editJust as with representation of women, LGBT, and minorities in video games themselves, these groups also can be marginalized within the video game development industry in Western markets. The industry is primarily made up of Caucasian, heterosexual males, according to 2017 industry studies, a result of the marketing of video games during the 70s and 80s. Experts have stressed the need to draw underrepresented groups into the industry to help developers gain broader insights for the stories and characters for video games, so that new games will appeal to the largest possible audiences.[132] While the industry has had isolated cases where minorities reported mistreatment, there had not yet been a moment like the Me Too movement in other entertainment fields as of 2021. However, with major legal cases of sexual misconduct towards female employees at Riot Games, Ubisoft and Activision Blizzard filed from 2018 to 2021, some analysts and academics see such a watershed moment for the video game industry to be approaching.[133][134]
Video game developers are considered creative professionals and thus typically do not qualify for overtime pay.[135] Larger studios, particularly those backed by Triple A publishers, will frequently set game completion deadlines, and require employees to complete their tasks by this deadline, often requires several weeks of overtime work. This has become known as "crunch time" within the industry.[136] While infrequent periods of crunch time are tolerated, there have been several reported cases where developers have been forced into a crunch time mode for months at a time, even well before a game's set completion deadline.[137][138][139] Such practices have caused developers and other groups starting in 2018 for discussing unionization within the industry and establishing reasonable limits on crunch time and other workers' rights.[135][140]
Lack of crediting
editA 2015 Polygon article stated that crediting "has long been a sensitive topic in the game industry".[141] There have been instances of employees, or even entire studios, not being listed in the credits of a game. Sometimes, this is mutually agreed upon by publishers and developers, or even desired by the developing party; see Video game development § Outsourcing for more information on this. In other instances, it is against their wishes, or something they reluctantly consent to because it's the only work they can get.[142] Lack of crediting has been a contended issue since the early days of the industry. In the 1970s and 80s, Atari never credited developers,[143] which game designer Warren Robinett said was "a power play to keep the game designers from getting recognition and therefore more bargaining power".[144] This led Robinett to create the first well-known Easter egg in Adventure (1980) to acknowledge his authorship.
In-game credits serve as official references, and are aggregated by websites such as MobyGames and Giant Bomb. If a person is not credited, they could still include their work experience in their portfolio or CV, but they might have difficulties backing this up during a job interview.[145] Moreover, non-disclosure agreements might actually prevent them from doing so.[146] In 2006, a survey by the IGDA found that 35% of the respondents either "don't ever" or "only sometimes" receive official credit.[147] In subsequent years, Mythic,[148] Codemasters,[149] and Rockstar Games[150] all self-confirmed that they at some point had a policy of only crediting employees who stayed until the end of development. This has been denounced as a way of trapping workers in the company, and punishing them if they leave.[151] Rockstar, which was particularly criticized over this, eventually abolished the policy.[146] A 2021 Washington Post article stated the issue was still "a huge area of concern".[146] Švelch (2021), in Games and Culture, found that credit omission frequently occurs when work is outsourced, and is particularly common in freemium games.[152][153]
Anti-consumer practices
editVideo games as computer software are potentially easy to copy and duplicate outside of the copyright owner's control, which can lead to widespread copyright infringement. Prior to digital distribution, some games included an in-game step that required the player to check part of the game's printed manual or material shipped with the game such as a code wheel, which they entered into the game to validate ownership, though such simply checks were easily defeated through photocopies and shared information.[154] With wide availability of the Internet making such physical schemes impractical to control copyright infringement, many developers and publishers turned to digital rights management (DRM) to control the use of digital content and devices after purchase and to protect an entity's intellectual property from public access.[155] DRM technologies typically tie the specific installation of a game to the computer it is installed on, preventing a user from sharing the same files with a second user; however this also can limit legitimate reuse of the installation of the game by the purchaser on different computers they own. Because of limitations placed on what a user can do with purchases games bundled with DRM, consumers argue it inconveniences legitimate customers and allows big business to stifle innovation and competition.[156] In some types of "always-in DRM", the DRM must have a persistent connection to an external server, which has raised further concerns about the ability for a user to play a game if they temporarily lack an Internet connection, and the fate of the game if the DRM server should be discontinued.[157][158]
With the advent of digital distribution and online storefronts for video games, publishers and developers sought ways to further monetize the game as to obtain further revenue after the initial sale. Larger expansion packs led way to the nature of microtransactions, small purchases, typically under US$5 for a small benefit in the game. One of the first examples of this was a piece of horse armor for The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, which proved controversial. Publishers and developers would continue to develop other monetization methods, such as freemium games that are free to play but the player benefits by spending real-life money for in-game boosts. A more recent approach is the idea of loot boxes, popularized in games like Overwatch, where the player can purchase with either in-game or real-life funds a virtual box that contains a set of in-game items, with the items being distributed by various rarity levels. Loot boxes came under intense government and media scrutiny in 2018 as it felt these mechanics were too close or were like gambling, and would violate their local laws. Some countries like Denmark and the Netherlands banned the use of loot boxes, while other countries like the United States and United Kingdom urged the video game industry to voluntarily regulate the use of loot boxes.
Environmental concerns
editThe video game industry does contribute towards environmental concerns with how large it has grown in the 2010s. Both the sourcing of electronics hardware to make consoles and personal computers,[159] and the generation of electricity for playing games are considered part of the industry's environmental footprint. Newer game technology such as cloud gaming utilize data centers which is also generally less energy efficient compared to traditional computing, though provide performance benefits. In the United States, as of 2019, it was estimated that the total power used by video games was about 34 TWh/year or 2.4% of the total domestic energy market, and associated 24 MT/year of carbon dioxide emissions, equivalent to that of 5 million gas-engine automobiles.[160][161] Major console manufactures Sony and Microsoft have both committed to improving their console hardware to be more sustainable and reducing power requirements.[162][163]
Publicized incidents
editIn the United States
editOn 22 November 1997, Noah Wilson, aged 13, died when his friend, Yancy, stabbed him in the chest with a kitchen knife. Wilson's mother, Andrea Wilson, alleged her son was stabbed to death because of an obsession with the 1995 Midway game Mortal Kombat 3; that Yancy was so obsessed with the game that he believed himself to be the character, Cyrax, who uses a finishing move which Wilson claims involves taking the opponent in a headlock and stabbing them in the chest, despite the fact that Cyrax has never used this Fatality in any game he has appeared in. The court found "Wilson's complaint fails to state a claim upon which relief can be granted."[164]
There have also been video game-related crimes which took place at schools. On 24 March 1998, 13-year-old Mitchell Johnson and 11-year-old Andrew Golden killed four students and a teacher in the 1998 Westside Middle School shooting. Although no connection to video games was drawn by the press at the time, the case was re-examined by commentators a year later, subsequent to the events of the Columbine High School massacre, and it was determined that the two boys had often played GoldenEye 007 together and they enjoyed playing first-person shooter games.[165][166]
On 20 April 1999, Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold killed 12 students, a teacher, and themselves in the Columbine High School massacre. The two were allegedly obsessed with the video game Doom. Harris also created WADs for the game, and created a large mod named "Tier" which he called his "life's work". Contrary to rumor, however, neither student had made a Doom level mimicking the school's layout, and there is no evidence the pair practiced the massacre in Doom.[167]
2000s
editControversy related to video games was sparked again in November 2001, when twenty-one-year-old Shawn Woolley committed suicide in a state his mother described as an addiction to EverQuest. Woolley's mother said,
- "I think the way the game is written is that when you first start playing it, it is fun, and you make great accomplishments. And then the further you get into it, the higher level you get, the longer you have to stay on it to move onward, and then it isn't fun anymore. But by then you're addicted, and you can't leave it."[168]
Later video game controversies centered on whether some murderers were inspired by crime simulators. In February 2003, 16-year-old American Dustin Lynch was charged with aggravated murder. He pleaded insanity in that he was obsessed with Grand Theft Auto III. Jack Thompson, an attorney and an opponent of video games, offered to represent Lynch.[169] Thompson encouraged the father of the victim to pass a note to the judge that read "the attorneys had better tell the jury about the violent video game that trained this kid [and] showed him how to kill our daughter, JoLynn. If they don't, I will."[170] Lynch later retracted his insanity plea. His mother, Jerrilyn Thomas, said,
On 7 June 2003, 18-year-old American Devin Moore shot and killed two policemen and a dispatcher after grabbing one of the officers' weapons following an arrest for the possession of a stolen vehicle. At trial, the defense claimed that Moore had been inspired by the video game Grand Theft Auto: Vice City.[172] On 25 June 2003, two American step brothers, Joshua and William Buckner, aged 14 and 16, respectively, used a rifle to fire at vehicles on Interstate 40 in Tennessee, killing a 45-year-old man and wounding a 19-year-old woman. The two shooters told investigators they had been inspired by Grand Theft Auto III.[173] In June 2007, 22-year-old Texan Alejandro Garcia shot and killed his cousin after arguing over whose turn it was to play the game Scarface: The World Is Yours. He pleaded guilty at his murder trial on 6 April 2011, and was sentenced to 15 to 30 years in prison.[174][175]
In September 2007, in Ohio, 16-year-old Daniel Petric sneaked out of his bedroom window to purchase the game Halo 3 against the orders of his father, a minister at New Life Assembly of God in Wellington, Ohio, U.S.[176] His parents eventually banned him from the game after he spent up to 18 hours a day with it, and secured it in a lockbox in a closet where the father also kept a 9mm handgun according to prosecutors.[177] In October 2007, Daniel used his father's key to open the lockbox and remove the gun and the game. He then entered the living room of his house and shot both of them in the head, killing his mother and wounding his father. Petric was sentenced to life in prison without parole, which was later commuted to 23 years in prison.[178] Defense attorneys argued that Petric was influenced by video game addiction. The court dismissed these claims. The judge, James Burge, commented that while he thought there was ample evidence the boy knew what he was doing, Burge thought the game had affected him like a drug, saying "I firmly believe that Daniel Petric had no idea at the time he hatched this plot that if he killed his parents they would be dead forever."[179]
In December 2007, 17-year-old Lamar Roberts and his 16-year-old girlfriend, Heather Trujillo, were accused of beating a 7-year-old girl to death. They were said to have been imitating the content of Mortal Kombat.[180] In July 2008, Heather was sentenced to 18 years in prison and 6 years in a youth-offender program,[181] and, on 16 January 2009, Lamar was sentenced to 36 years in prison.[182]
In June 2008, four teens allegedly obsessed with Grand Theft Auto IV went on a crime spree after being in New Hyde Park, New York. They first robbed a man, knocking out his teeth and then they stopped a woman driving a black BMW and stole her car and her cigarettes.[183]
In April 2009, Joseph Johnson III was charged with murder after shooting his friend, Danny Taylor, during a quarrel over a video game in Taylor's apartment in Chicago, Illinois.[184]
2010s
editIn January 2010, 9-year-old Anthony Maldonado was stabbed to death by his 25-year-old relative, Alejandro Morales, after an argument regarding Maldonado's recently purchased copy of Tony Hawk: Ride and a PlayStation 3 console.[185][186][187]
On 29 November 2010 in South Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, a 16-year-old boy, Kendall Anderson, bludgeoned his mother to death in her sleep with a claw hammer after she took away his PlayStation.[188][189]
On 24 March 2012, 13-year-old Noah Crooks was accused of shooting Gretchen, his 32-year-old mother, dead with a .22 caliber rifle after a failed attempt to rape her. He was charged with first-degree murder and assault. During the dispatch call to 911 shortly after the murder, Crooks revealed that his mother had taken away his Call of Duty video game because his grades had turned poor and that this was the reason why he snapped. According to dispatch, Crooks did not seem emotional even though he had killed his mother a couple of hours earlier.[190]
After the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting on 14 December 2012, initial media reports misidentified the shooter as Ryan Lanza, the brother of the actual perpetrator. After discovering that Ryan had liked Mass Effect on Facebook, an internet mob immediately attacked the game's Facebook page, labelling its developers "child killers".[191] Once it was discovered that it was his brother who had carried out the massacre, early news stories about Adam claimed a link to between his actions and obsessively playing other video games such as StarCraft and Dance Dance Revolution.[192] After a UK tabloid claimed that Lanza had an obsession with the violent Call of Duty and Dynasty Warriors game series[193] which he owned some titles from,[194] this became widely repeated across the internet, although many fans of these series disputed the claims.[195] Subsequently, representatives of Southington, a small town near Sandy Hook, organized the collection and potential burning of violent video games in exchange for gift certificates, although they also took music and movies deemed harmful.[196] A report by CBS claimed that anonymous law enforcement sources suggested a link to video games, which was later dismissed by the Connecticut police, saying that it was "all speculation".[197] However, the incident prompted a wave of legislative and bureaucratic efforts against violent video games in the following months, including a meeting between US vice president Joe Biden and representatives from the video game industry on the topic of video game violence.[198] The official investigation report, released on 25 November 2013, discussed video games only briefly in the 48-page document and did not suggest they contributed to Lanza's motive. The report revealed that Lanza played a variety of video games, although he was most fond of non-violent video games such as Dance, Dance Revolution and Super Mario Brothers. The report particularly focused on Dance, Dance Revolution which he played regularly, for hours, and at times with an associate.[199]
In the wake of the El Paso, Texas shooting on 3 August, and the Dayton, Ohio shooting on 4 August in 2019, President Donald Trump partially attributed the shootings to video games. Trump stated "We must stop the glorification of violence in our society. This includes the gruesome and grisly video games that are now commonplace. It is too easy today for troubled youth to surround themselves with a culture that celebrates violence."[200] Similar concerns were raised by House Minority Leader Kevin McCarthy.[200]
Outside the United States
editIn April 2000, a Spanish 16-year-old, José Rabadán Pardo, murdered his father, mother, and his sister with a katana, proclaiming that he was on an "avenging mission" for Squall Leonhart, the main character of the video game Final Fantasy VIII.[201]
On 27 February 2004, in Leicester, England, 17-year-old Warren Leblanc lured 14-year-old Stefan Pakeerah into a park and murdered him by stabbing him repeatedly with a claw hammer and a knife. Leblanc was reportedly obsessed with Manhunt, although investigation quickly revealed that the killer did not even own a copy of the game. The victim's mother, Giselle Pakeerah, has been campaigning against violent video games in the UK ever since.[202] The police investigating the case have dismissed any link.[203]
In October 2004, a 41-year-old Chinese man named Qiu Chengwei stabbed 26-year-old Zhu Caoyuan to death over a dispute regarding the sale of a virtual weapon the two had jointly won in the game The Legend of Mir 3.[204]
On 27 December 2004, 13-year-old Xiao Yi committed suicide by jumping from a twenty-four story building in Tianjin, China, as a result of the effects of his video game addiction, hoping to be "reunited" with his fellow gamers in the afterlife, according to his suicide notes. Prior to his death, he had spent thirty-six consecutive hours playing Warcraft III.[205][206]
In August 2005, 28-year-old South Korean Lee Seung Seop died after continuously playing StarCraft for 50 hours.[207]
In September 2007, a Chinese man in Guangzhou, China, died after playing internet video games for three consecutive days in an internet cafe.[208][209]
In December 2007, a Russian man was beaten to death over an argument about Lineage II. The man was killed when his guild and a rival challenged each other to a real-life brawl.[210]
On 2 August 2008, Polwat Chinno, a 19-year-old Thai teenager, stabbed and killed a Bangkok taxi driver during an attempt to steal the driver's cab in order to obtain money to buy a copy of Grand Theft Auto IV. A police official said that the teen was trying to copy a similar act in the game. As a consequence, officials ordered the banning of the game and later the series, which led its distributor, New Era Interactive Media, to withdraw it, including its installment, from shops across Thailand.[211][212][213]
On 13 October 2008, the disappearance of Brandon Crisp and his subsequent death involved, according to his parents, obsessive playing of Call of Duty 4: Modern Warfare has been referenced in discussions about video game obsession and spawned a report aired by CBC's The Fifth Estate TV show on video game addiction and Crisp's story titled "Top Gun", subtitled "When a video gaming obsession turns to addiction and tragedy".[214]
2010s
editIn January 2010, Gary Alcock punched, slapped and pinched his partner's 15-month-old daughter in the three weeks leading up to her death before he delivered a fatal blow to the stomach which tore her internal organs because she interrupted him playing his Xbox. She died from internal bleeding after suffering thirty-five separate injuries including multiple bruises, rib fractures and brain damage, which were comparable to injuries suffered in a car crash. Alcock was jailed for life and must serve at least 21 years.[215]
In May 2010, French gamer Julien Barreaux located and stabbed a fellow player known only as "Mikhael" who had stabbed Barreaux in the game Counter-Strike 6 months earlier. The judge at his trial called him "a menace to society".[216][217]
On 9 April 2011 in Alphen aan den Rijn, the Netherlands, 24-year-old Tristan van der Vlis opened fire in a shopping mall, firing more than a hundred times with a semi-automatic rifle and a handgun, killing 6 people and wounding 17 others, after which he also killed himself.[218] A fair amount of attention was given to Van Der Vlis' playing of Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 and to the alleged similarities between the events in Alphen a/d Rijn and the controversial "No Russian" mission in the game, where the player can choose to (or choose not to) partake in the killing of a large group of innocent people inside an airport terminal.[219][220]
On 22 July 2011, Anders Behring Breivik perpetrated the 2011 Norway attacks, detonating a car bomb in the executive government quarter, and then travelled to a summer camp for teenagers, where he proceeded to stalk and kill a large number of people. Seventy-seven people were killed in the attacks, a majority of them being teenagers who were at the summer camp. Hundreds were injured by the car bomb explosion.[221] Breivik himself claimed in court that he had deliberately used the 2009 video game Call of Duty: Modern Warfare 2 to train for the attacks, specifically by practicing his aim using a "holographic aiming device".[222] He stated in his manifesto that he had been planning the attacks since 2002.
On the night of 14 April 2012, in Clydebank, Scotland, a 13-year-old boy slashed his friend's throat after a session of Gears of War 3. The wound was deep enough to expose his trachea and required 20 staples after his surgery. In March 2013, Brian Docherty, a chairman of the Scottish Police Federation, commented that "These games are rated 18 and shouldn't be played by children of this young age" and that "We need to look again at what we can do to [prevent children from playing games meant for adults]."[223] Similar and other effects were denounced in 2004 by Gary Webb in his article The Killing Game, exposing the use of increased reality video games by the US Army.[224]
In February 2018, after 15-year-old Ben Walmsley of Greater Manchester, England, committed suicide, his father Darren stated that he believed the visual novel Doki Doki Literature Club! may have contributed to "dragging" his son into a dark place, due to a subplot of the game involving two characters (Sayori and Yuri) suffering from depression who independently commit suicide. Walmsley also claimed that Ben had been frequently awoken at night due to text messages he attributed to coming from the game's characters, despite no such function existing in the game. In June 2018, the controversy was discussed by Victoria Derbyshire on BBC News, and she called the game a "risk to children" and thought it should've had a higher age rating. The game being blamed for Walmsley's death, as well as the BBC interview discussing the controversy, was met with criticism on social media, with some being sick of video games being blamed for instigating tragic events, while others thought the game's discussion on the BBC was not necessary. Darren Walmsley was also criticized for claiming the video game characters had literally been sending his son text messages due to it not being a feature in the game.[225]
Positive effects of video games
editSome researchers claim that video games, more than causing no harm, are beneficial to social and cognitive development and psychological well-being.[226][227] Certain scholars admit that games can be addictive, and part of their research explores how games connect to the reward circuits of the human brain. But they recognize the cognitive benefits of playing video games: pattern recognition, system thinking, and patience.[228]
Cognitive skills
editAction video game players have better hand–eye coordination and visuo-motor skills, such as resistance to distraction, sensitivity to information in the peripheral vision and ability to count briefly presented objects, than non-players.[229] Through the development of the PlayStation Move, Kinect and Wii, video games can help develop motor skills through full body movement.[230] Furthermore, video games have also been linked with increased visual and attentional skills. Studies have shown that video game players were not only able to track 2 more objects on average than non video-game players, but were also more likely to recognize targets in a cluttered area.[231] Experiments have indicated increases in cognition and problem solving skills in professional gamers.[228] A common viewpoint is that playing video games is an intellectually lazy activity, but research suggests it may actually strengthen children's spatial navigation, reasoning, memory and perception skills.[232]
In 1994, a study conducted by the University of California in which fifth graders played extensive hours of video games, they managed to gain better spatial skills.[233] The children were split into two groups, with the experimental group playing Marble Madness, while the control group played Conjecture. The distinction is important because Marble Madness requires spatial skills while Conjecture does not. The results may not be generalizable, since the sample of kids is taken from a single private school, and may not necessarily be representative of the population. The children practiced their respective game for forty-five minutes per session for three sessions, all on separate days. Appropriate pre- and post-tests were also assessed for spatial ability, on the day before and after the sessions. Irrespective of gender, practicing Marble Madness significantly increased spatial ability, especially in the children who had low performance on the spatial ability pre-test. Conversely, playing Conjecture did not increase children's spatial skills. This indicates that the type of game is important to consider when changes to cognitive abilities appear to be present. It is unknown if these increases in spatial ability persist into the long-term. This could mean that any benefits to practicing may only last if practice sessions are done at least intermittently.
Relief from stress
editOlsen suggests video games can have social benefits for children, for example, video games can provide a topic of discussion and something over which children can bond, and can help children make friends; playing video games can increase a child's self-esteem when they are struggling in one aspect of their life, but are able to do something correctly in a video game; and, children can also learn to take on leadership roles within a multi-player online game.[234] Christopher Ferguson, a psychologist well known for his video game research, conducted a study in which results suggest that violent games reduce depression and hostile feelings in players through mood management.[235]
According to a research paper done by Radboud University, creating positive emotions help to build motivation, relationships, and cope with failure. It also helps to monitor negative emotions such as anger, frustration or anxiety and control these emotions in order to achieve a goal (Isabela Granic, Adam Lobel, and Rutger C.M.E. Engels). By learning to motivate themselves, students could push themselves to achieve goals and improve their performance academically as they would improve their performance similarly in their video games. Also, social games that rely on interactions with other people would promote healthy relationships and better communication between their fellow students, teachers and others outside of school. This could also benefit the students to work harder in class to achieve better grades and learn from their mistakes and improve rather than become frustrated. As video games are a favored pastime among many students, having a game that promotes positive emotions will help to alleviate stress in the classroom, making the environment fun and sociable.[236]
A 2020 Oxford Internet Institute study involving over 3000 adult players involving the games Animal Crossing: New Horizons and Plants vs Zombies: Battle for Neighborville during the COVID-19 pandemic found that those that played games longer felt happier and were less stressed. The researches concluded that these effects were partially contributed by a combination of the competence and social interaction brought through the games, and suggested that longer play times could improve a player's well-being. However, the researchers also identified other factors that could influence this benefit, including the player's experiences outside of the game which may actually lead to a negative impact on well-being with longer playtimes.[237][238][239]
Physical rehabilitation
editStudies have also tried using video games to assist in physical rehabilitation. Researchers used video games to provide physical therapy, improved disease self-management, distraction from discomfort, and increased physical activity, among other things. All of the above studies showed a significant improvement among testers.[240] In addition, research done in Taiwan has shown that video game therapy can be used to improve the physical health of children with developmental delays.[241]
Education
editOther studies have examined the benefits of multiplayer video games in a family setting;[242] the use of video games in a classroom setting;[243] online gaming; and the effects of video game playing on dexterity, computer literacy, fact recall processes and problem solving skills.[244] Glazer, a researcher, suggests, "A kid in the classroom has to worry about looking like an idiot. In a game, they're raising their hand all the time, and true learning comes from failing."[245][246][247] Not all video games are mindless. According to John L. Sherry, assistant professor at Michigan State University, 'educators are increasingly using educational games in the classroom as a motivational tool. The right video games help children master everything from basic grammar to complex math without the drudgery of old-school flash cards.'[248]
Certain studies indicate that video games may have value in terms of academic performance, perhaps because of the skills that are developed in the process. "When you play ... games you're solving puzzles to move to the next level and that involves using some of the general knowledge and skills in maths, reading and science that you've been taught during the day," said Alberto Posso, an associate professor at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, after analysing data from the results of standardized testing completed by over 12,000 high school students across Australia. As summarized by The Guardian,[249] the study [published in the International Journal of Communication], "found that students who played online games almost every day scored 15 points above average in maths and reading tests and 17 points above average in science". However, the reporter also stated that "[the] methodology cannot prove that playing video games were the cause of the improvement". The Guardian also reported that a Columbia University study indicated that extensive video gaming by students in the 6 to 11 age group provided a greatly increased chance of high intellectual functioning and overall school competence.
In a study done in 2017 by the International Conference Educational Technologies they explored the educational purposes of the video game Minecraft. The results that they concluded from this experiment was that it increased collaboration between groups, increased problem solving skills, improved computer skills and more.[250]
In an interview with CNN, Edward Castronova, a professor of Telecommunications at Indiana University Bloomington said he was not surprised by the outcome of the Australian study but also discussed the issue of causal connection. "Though there is a link between gaming and higher math and science scores, it doesn't mean playing games caused the higher scores. It could just be that kids who are sharp are looking for a challenge, and they don't find it on social media, and maybe they do find it on board games and video games," he explained.[251]
Business skills
editIn 1997, Herz and in 2006, Wade and Beck, authors, suggested video game playing may increase entrepreneurial skills. Herz argued that many so-called negative effects of video games, such as aggression and lack of pro-social behavior, are both necessary and useful traits to have in a capitalistic society. Specifically, Herz argued that many academic researchers have an anti-capitalist bias, and thus failed to notice the benefits of such traits.[252][page needed][253][page needed]
Pro-social behavior
editIn 2010, Tobias Greitemeyer and Silvia Osswald conducted a series of 4 experiments where some people played a prosocially themed video game, and others played a neutral video game. They found that the people who played the prosocial game were more helpful compared to the people who played the neutral game when another person had a mishap and asked for help. The people who played prosocial games were also more likely to assist in further experiments as a favor to the researcher, and more likely to step in and calm down a situation where someone was being harassed.[254]
In 2012, a study approved by Iowa State University assessed whether prosocial games could promote helpful behavior in children. In this study, children aged 9–14 years old played three different types of video games.[255] They were first assessed for aggression in order to avoid confounding. Afterwards, they completed a puzzle task with a partner and then assigned tangrams to a fictitious person in another room. The participants were told that the person in the other room, who they did not know was not actually real, had an opportunity to win a prize. The children were told they were not eligible for the gift card. The measure for helpful or hurtful behavior was based on how many easy or difficult tangrams they assigned to the fictitious person. Results indicated that playing prosocial games significantly more helpful behaviors in children than those who played violent video games. Conversely, playing violent video games had significantly more hurtful behaviors in children than the children who played prosocial games. Deviations from the expected pattern were also non-significant. The short-term effects observed after only thirty minutes of playing are substantial enough to consider the possibility that the longer amount of time a child plays a video game, the more effect it will have on their behavior. The researchers concluded that playing prosocial games affects a child's social cognition, because it changes their attitudes and affect. It is also important to note that outside the confines of a study, playing a video game may affect how a child acts, but it is not the only factor present that can affect this.
A study conducted in June 2014 at the University of Buffalo concluded that violent behavior in a virtual environment could lead to players' increased sensitivity of the moral codes that they violated, due to immoral behavior in video games eliciting guilt in players.[256]
See also
editExamples:
References
edit- ^ Freedman J. Media violence and its effect on aggression: assessing the scientific evidence. University of Toronto Press, Toronto 2002 ISBN 0-8020-8425-7.
- ^ "Resolution on Violent Video Games". American Psychological Association. Archived from the original on 20 November 2020. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
- ^ "News Media, Public Education and Public Policy Committee". The Amplifier Magazine. 12 June 2017. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
- ^ Draper, Kevin (5 August 2019). "Video Games Aren't Why Shootings Happen. Politicians Still Blame Them". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 26 April 2020. Retrieved 19 April 2020.
- ^ Ryan C.W. Hall; Terri Day; Richard C.W. Hall (April 2011). "A Plea for Caution: Violent Video Games, the Supreme Court, and the Role of Science". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 86 (4): 315–321. doi:10.4065/mcp.2010.0762. ISSN 0025-6196. PMC 3068891. PMID 21454733.
- ^ Cohen, Karen (3 March 1994). "Video game makers say they are making progress on ratings". UPI. Archived from the original on 22 August 2019. Retrieved 2 November 2018.
- ^ Kohler, Chris (29 July 2009). "July 29, 1994: Videogame Makers Propose Ratings Board to Congress". Wired. Condé Nast Publications. Archived from the original on 18 February 2014. Retrieved 1 June 2011.
- ^ Kravits, David (27 June 2011). "States May Not Ban Sale, Rental of Violent Videogames to Minors". Wired. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 27 June 2011.
- ^ a b "Violent video games and young people". Harvard University. October 2010. Archived from the original on 29 July 2018.
- ^ "Confirmed: Sex minigame in PS2 San Andreas". Gamespot.com. Archived from the original on 28 July 2010. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ Fisher, Ken (7 September 2005). "Hot coffee burns Take-Two and Rockstar". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on 29 May 2009. Retrieved 30 March 2011.
- ^ "Sick Japanese Rape Game Scrapped". New Computer Express. No. 42 (26 August 1989). 24 August 1989. p. 5.
- ^ Meli, Marissa (17 December 2011). "The Most Controversial Video Games". UGO Networks. Archived from the original on 17 December 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
- ^ "Sony seemingly censors controversial Senran Kagura mode". 13 October 2018. Archived from the original on 26 October 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
- ^ "Sony censorship row returns as mature-rated Switch title is E for everyone on PS4". 7 November 2018. Archived from the original on 19 February 2019. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
- ^ "PlayStation blocks launch of adult anime game Omega Labyrinth Z". Eurogamer. 25 June 2018. Archived from the original on 10 October 2018. Retrieved 19 June 2019.
- ^ Byrd P. "It's all fun and games until somebody gets hurt: the effectiveness of proposed video game regulation". Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine Houston Law Review 2007. Accessed 19 March 2007.
- ^ Byrd P. R. "It's all fun and games until someone gets hurt: the effectiveness of proposed video-game legislation on reducing violence in children". Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine Houston Law Review.
- ^ "Technology: Greeks fight computer game ban". Archived 2014-03-05 at the Wayback Machine BBC News World Edition. 5 September 2002.
- ^ Lee J."South Korea pulls plug on late-night adolescent online gamers". Archived 2014-11-04 at the Wayback Machine CNN 22 November 2011.
- ^ "Nintendo Censorship". Filibuster cartoons website. Accessed 20 September 2012.
- ^ "Moving Experiences". Iupress.indiana.edu. Archived from the original on 6 March 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "SAGE: Media Violence and Aggression: Science and Ideology: Tom Grimes: 9781412914413". SAGE. Archived from the original on 31 May 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "Gaming lobby Video Game Voters Network surpasses 500K members". VentureBeat. 18 March 2013. Archived from the original on 1 March 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "Video Game Lobby Steers Gun Violence Debate Away". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "Report: ESA Spent $3.9 Million in 2013 Fighting Against State and Federal Anti-Videogame Legislation, Lobbying". Gamepolitics.com. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "A Hornet's Nest Over Violent Video Games – The Conversation - Blogs - The Chronicle of Higher Education". Chronicle.com. Archived from the original on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ Elson, Malte; Ferguson, Christopher J. (2013). "Gun violence and media effects: challenges for science and public policy". British Journal of Psychiatry. 203 (5). Bjp.rcpsych.org: 322–324. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.113.128652. PMID 24187065. S2CID 22212411. Archived from the original on 3 July 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ Hook L. "Lenovo's Kinect-clone evades Chinese ban on video-game consoles". Archived 2012-06-08 at the Wayback Machine The Globe and Mail 18 June 2012. Accessed 18 June 2012.
- ^ Ume L. "Console revolution". Archived 2012-05-12 at the Wayback Machine The Escapist. 15 December 2011. Accessed 20 August 2011.
- ^ Tom Phillips (13 January 2014). "As the Console Ban Lifts, China Plan to Block "Hostile" Games". Eurogamer. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ Liao, Rita (22 April 2019). "China's new gaming rules to ban poker, blood and imperial schemes". TechCrunch. Retrieved 6 February 2023.
- ^ Colin Campbell (16 February 2012). "How Parents See Games Today". IGN. Archived from the original on 18 June 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
- ^ Seth G. Macy (16 September 2014). "The ESRB Is Turning 20". IGN. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "UK Enforce PEGI Video Game Ratings System". BBC News. 30 July 2012. Archived from the original on 14 June 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "Hidden Sex Scenes Hit GTA's Rating". BBC News. 21 July 2005. Archived from the original on 24 December 2006. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ "Video games ratings enforcement act". Archived 2020-11-20 at the Wayback Machine FR Web Gate US government website.
- ^ Triplett W. "Bill targets teen gamers". Archived 2008-05-13 at the Wayback Machine Variety 7 May 2008.
- ^ "Undercover Shoppers Find It Increasingly Difficult for Children to Buy M-Rated Games | Federal Trade Commission". Ftc.gov. 8 May 2008. Archived from the original on 3 December 2013. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ "Violent Video Games Are The Hardest Media For Minors To Acquire, According To A Study From The FTC". 24 April 2011. Archived from the original on 5 April 2012. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ "H.R. 231, Video game health labelling act". Archived 2011-11-20 at the Wayback Machine Congressional bills, GPO access.
- ^ Baca J. "Video game health". US government. January 2009.
- ^ "Video Game Health Labelling Act". Archived 2011-11-20 at the Wayback Machine Congressional Bills, GPO Access 24 January 2011.
- ^ "Arnold Schwarzenegger. Edmund G. Brown Jr. v. Entertainment Merchants Association, and Entertainment Software Association" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 May 2013. Retrieved 18 April 2014.
- ^ O'Sullivan S. "Lawmaker keeps eye on video game case". Archived 2010-11-11 at the Wayback Machine Delaware News-Journal 1 November 2010. Accessed 11 November 2010.
- ^ Riopell M. "Ban kids from buying violent video games in Illinois?" Archived 2010-11-15 at the Wayback Machine Daily Herald 10 November 2010. Accessed 11 November 2010.
- ^ "Bloomberg Law - Document - Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Assn., 131 S. Ct. 2729, 180 L. Ed. 2d 708, 2011 ILRC 2071, 32 ILRD 137 (2011), Court Opinion". Bloomberglaw.com. Archived from the original on 3 November 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "Do Violent Video Games Harm Children? Comparing the Scientific Amicus Curiae "Experts" in Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association". Law.northwestern.edu. Archived from the original on 11 November 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ Ryan Hall; Terri Day & Richard Hall (August 2011). "A Further Plea for Caution Against Medical Professionals Overstating Video Game Violence Effects". Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 86 (8): 821–823. doi:10.4065/mcp.2011.0357. PMC 3146384.
- ^ "Sen. Feinstein blames NRA, gun makers for derailing assault weapons ban". Archived 2013-04-06 at the Wayback Machine CBS, San Francisco 3 April 2013, Accessed 1 August 2013.
- ^ Good, Owen (4 April 2010). "Religion in Games: Less a Leap of Faith, More a Suspension of Belief". Kotaku. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 16 February 2016.
- ^ "Young Sikhs force changes to Hitman 2". CBBC. 21 November 2002. Archived from the original on 8 February 2008. Retrieved 28 January 2008.
- ^ Walling A. "Do video games lead to violent behavior in children?" Archived 2008-07-24 at the Wayback Machine American Family Physician 1 April 2002 65(7) p. 1. Accessed 7 September 2007.
- ^ Dietz T. "An examination of violence and gender role portrayals in video games: implications for gender socialization and aggressive behavior." Sex Roles 1998 38(5-6) pp. 425–442. Accessed 7 March 2014.
- ^ "Gender and computer games: exploring females' dislikes". Archived 2010-04-16 at the Wayback Machine Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication. Wiley online library. July 2006 11(4) pp. 910–931.
- ^ Kerwick M. "Video games now starring strong female characters". Archived 2012-11-03 at the Wayback Machine Pop Matters website. 13 May 2007.
- ^ Kennedy H. "Lara Croft: feminist icon of cyberbimbo? On the limits of textual analysis." Archived 2012-02-10 at the Wayback Machine Game Studies website December 2002.
- ^ Espejo R. (ed.) Video games: many video games reinforce gender stereotypes. Greenhaven Press, San Diego 2003.
- ^ "Lara's curves reduced to appeal to female gamers". Archived 2017-12-06 at the Wayback Machine AFP in The Sydney Morning Herald 21 May 2005. Accessed 7 March 2014.
- ^ Flew T. and Humphreys S. Games: technology, industry, culture. Oxford University Press 2005.
- ^ Henley, Stacey (7 July 2020). "Never Mind The Last Of Us, Here's The Real Game With The First LGBT+ Protagonist". USGamer. Archived from the original on 16 July 2020. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
- ^ Sheff D. Game Over. 1993.
- ^ Rippling M. "The two phantasy stars". Camineet website. Accessed 29 January 2010.
- ^ "Sexual moments in video game history". Archived 2011-06-09 at the Wayback Machine Mockery website. Accessed 4 August 2009.
- ^ McLelland M. "Male homosexuality and popular culture in modern Japan". Archived 2019-08-02 at the Wayback Machine Intersection website.
- ^ Seabrook J. "Will Wright, Game Master". Archived 2014-07-01 at the Wayback Machine The New Yorker 6 November 2006.
- ^ Sung L. "Homosexuality in video games". Archived 2019-04-30 at the Wayback Machine Neo Seeker website news.
- ^ Fahey M. "How not to address homosexuality in gaming". Archived 2016-11-04 at the Wayback Machine Kotaku website.
- ^ Everett A., Watkins C. and Salen K (ed.) The Power of play: the portrayal and performance of race in video games. The ecology of games: connecting youth, games and learning. The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation Series on Digital Media and Learning. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass. 2008 pp. 141–166. doi:10.1162/dmal.9780262693646.141
- ^ "Haitian-Americans protest Vice City". Archived 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine GameSpot website Accessed 18 August 2006.
- ^ "Take-two: self censoring 'Vice City'". Archived 2007-09-30 at the Wayback Machine GameSpot website. Accessed 18 August 2006.
- ^ Hourigan B. "The moral code of grand theft auto IV". Archived 2013-12-17 at the Wayback Machine Institute of Public Affairs Accessed 1 December 2013.
- ^ Jamin Brophy-Warren (12 March 2009). "'Resident Evil 5' Reignites Debate About Race in Videogames". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 31 January 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "Call of Duty and Medal of Honor banned in Pakistan". Pakistantoday.com.pk. Archived from the original on 3 November 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "Computer game addiction". Archived 2012-04-15 at the Wayback Machine Berkeley Parents Network. Accessed 25 June 2007.
- ^ Hauge M. and Gentile D. "Video game addiction among adolescents: associations with academic performance and aggression". Paper presented at a Society for Research in Child Development Conference, Tampa Florida. April 2003. Accessed 25 June 2007. Archived 7 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "30 great gaming world records". Archived 2012-02-19 at the Wayback Machine Computer and Video Games website 14 February 2009. Accessed 26 January 2012.
- ^ "Electronic and computer games: the history of an interactive medium". Screen 1988 29(2) pp. 52–73. doi10.1093/screen/29.2.52 Accessed 2012. "In the UK, the Labour MP George Foulkes led a campaign in 1981 to curb the 'menace' of video games, maintaining that they had addictive properties. His 'Control of Space Invaders (and other Electronic Games) Bill' was put to the Commons and only narrowly defeated.
- ^ a b Han, D. H.; Kim, Y. S.; Lee, Y. S.; Min, K. J.; Renshaw, P. F. (2010). "Changes in cue-induced, prefrontal cortex activity with video-game play". Behaviour & Social Networking. 13 (6): 655–661. doi:10.1089/cyber.2009.0327. PMID 21142990.
- ^ Meyers, Michelle. "World Health Organization deems 'gaming disorder' an official illness". CNET. Archived from the original on 27 May 2019. Retrieved 27 May 2019.
- ^ "ICD-11 - Mortality and Morbidity Statistics". icd.who.int. Archived from the original on 31 January 2018. Retrieved 27 May 2019.
- ^ Yin-Poole, Wesley (1 June 2019). "Academics create the first psychological test for gaming disorder". Eurogamer. Archived from the original on 1 June 2019. Retrieved 1 June 2019.
- ^ Krishna, Swapna (27 December 2017). "The WHO may add video games to its list of recognized addictions". Engadget. Archived from the original on 28 December 2017. Retrieved 27 December 2017.
- ^ Dring, Christopher (1 March 2018). "New report questions World Health Organization's proposed 'gaming disorder' classification". GamesIndustry.biz. Archived from the original on 6 March 2018. Retrieved 5 March 2018.
- ^ Adinolf, Sonam; Turkay, Selen (23 October 2018). "Toxic Behaviors in Esports Games: Player Perceptions and Coping Strategies". Proceedings of the 2018 Annual Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play Companion Extended Abstracts. pp. 365–372. doi:10.1145/3270316.3271545. ISBN 9781450359689. S2CID 53098547.
- ^ Campbell, Colin (25 July 2018). "Gaming's toxic men, explained". Polygon. Archived from the original on 19 July 2019. Retrieved 24 August 2019.
- ^ "Xbox Live to Warn, then Punish Bad Behavior". TechnoBuffalo. 28 March 2014. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ "Anonymity on the Internet: Why the Price May Be Too High" (PDF). Csl.mtu.edu. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 March 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ Warzel, Charlie (15 August 2019). "How an Online Mob Created a Playbook for a Culture War". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 20 August 2019. Retrieved 21 August 2019.
- ^ Rus McLaughlin (15 February 2011). "Sexism and misogyny are gaming's status quo". VentureBeat. Archived from the original on 6 October 2014. Retrieved 28 September 2014.
- ^ Joe Yang (11 December 2012). "Why gaming culture is not misogynistic". VentureBeat. Archived from the original on 18 October 2014. Retrieved 10 October 2014.
- ^ "'A Band-aid approach' How harassment of women and Black online gamers goes on unchecked". USA TODAY. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
- ^ Hetfeld, Malindy (20 May 2021). "A new survey shows 59% of women hide their gender while gaming to avoid harassment". PC Gamer. Retrieved 8 April 2024 – via www.pcgamer.com.
- ^ Sinclair, Brendan (19 May 2021). "Survey says 59% of women hide gender to avoid harassment while gaming online". GamesIndustry.biz. Retrieved 8 April 2024.
- ^ Yin-Poole, Wesley (13 June 2017). "Sony defends decision to block PS4 cross-play with Xbox One and Nintendo Switch". Eurogamer. Retrieved 13 June 2017.
- ^ Kerr, Chris (14 December 2020). "Microsoft, Nintendo, and Sony unite to create safer online spaces". Gamasutra. Retrieved 14 December 2020.
- ^ Adachi, Paul JC; Willoughby, Teena (2017). "The link between playing video games and positive youth outcomes". Child Development Perspectives. 11 (3): 202–206. doi:10.1111/cdep.12232. S2CID 152237845.
- ^ Wang, Amy B. (14 August 2017). "A teen checked into an Internet-addiction camp in China. He was dead two days later". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 20 February 2018.
- ^ "China moves to zap online game addiction". Financial Times. 23 August 2005. Retrieved 20 February 2018.
- ^ Hernández, Javier C.; Zhang, Albee (6 November 2019). "90 Minutes a Day, Until 10 p.m.: China Sets Rules for Young Gamers". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 November 2019.
- ^ "Information for Parents: Classification categories explained". Australian Classification Board. Archived from the original on 29 October 2019. Retrieved 9 May 2015.
- ^ Clare, Jason (Minister for Justice) (10 December 2012). "Guidelines for the Classification of Films 2012". Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved 10 May 2015.
- ^ "ID, please: Bill would mandate carding for M-rated game buys". Ars Technica. Condé Nast Publications. 8 May 2008. Archived from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
- ^ "Essential Facts about the Computer and Video Game Industry" (PDF). Entertainment Software Association. 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 November 2014.
- ^ "Advice For Parents". Grandtheftchildhood.com. Archived from the original on 24 August 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "ESRB ratings". Esrb.com. Archived from the original on 16 February 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "Grand Theft Auto V". Commonsensemedia.org. 17 September 2013. Archived from the original on 9 January 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "About". ESRB Ratings. Archived from the original on 10 March 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2020.
- ^ Lees, Matt (1 December 2016). "What Gamergate should have taught us about the 'alt-right'". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 25 December 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
- ^ Coaston, Jane (5 March 2018). "Gamergate vs. Trump". Vox. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
- ^ Marcotte, Amanda (22 April 2018). "How the U.S. became Troll Nation: From Gamergate to the rise of Trump". Salon. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
- ^ Brown, Alfie (12 March 2018). "How video games are fuelling the rise of the far right". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
- ^ Romano, Aja (14 December 2016). "How the alt-right's sexism lures men into white supremacy". Vox. Archived from the original on 10 August 2018. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
- ^ Kamenetz, Anya (5 November 2018). "Right-Wing Hate Groups Are Recruiting Video Gamers". NPR. Archived from the original on 1 April 2019. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
- ^ Condis, Meghan (27 March 2019). "From Fortnite to Alt-Right". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
- ^ Roose, Kevin (17 August 2017). "This Was the Alt-Right's Favorite Chat App. Then Came Charlottesville". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
- ^ Bedingfield, Will (12 August 2021). "How the Far Right Exploded on Steam and Discord". Wired. Retrieved 12 August 2021.
- ^ Barton, Seth (13 March 2018). "Calling video games rightwing is a massive oversimplification of their ability to empower". MVCUK. Archived from the original on 13 March 2018. Retrieved 25 March 2019.
- ^ D'Anastasio, Cecelia (6 November 2018). "NPR Is Very Worried That Gaming Is Going To Turn Kids Into Nazis". Kotaku. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
- ^ "Massively Multiplayer Online Fraud: Why the Introduction of Real World Law in a Virtual Context is Good for Everyone". Archived from the original on 17 May 2014. Retrieved 15 May 2014.
- ^ "Virtual worlds and fraud: Approaching cybersecurity in massive multiplayer online games" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2014.
- ^ Hackers and Hacking. ABC-CLIO. 19 July 2013. ISBN 9781610692779. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "Avoid these 7 Online Games Scam Ploys and Traps.html". Scambusters.org. 9 December 2010. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ Jean-Loup Richet (2013). "Laundering money Online: a review of cybercriminal's methods". arXiv:1310.2368 [cs.CY].
- ^ Angharad Rhiannon (26 January 2021). "Report: Gamers at risk from cybercriminals". Advanced Television.
- ^ "Cyber criminals are taking aim at online gaming for their next big pay day". ZDNet. 6 January 2021.
- ^ "Online gaming a 'hotbed' for DDoS attacks — report". Security Brief. 14 January 2021.
- ^ "Gamers targeted by ransomware virus". BBC. 13 March 2015.
- ^ "Are Online Gamers and eSports Fanatics at Risk of Cyber Attacks?". Player. 22 January 2021.
- ^ "Syrk ransomware lurking in Fortnite cheat pack". Kaspersky Daily. 23 August 2019.
- ^ Pritchard, Matthew (24 July 2000). "How to Hurt the Hackers: "The Scoop on Internet Cheating and How You Can Combat It"". Gamasutra. Retrieved 15 September 2009.
- ^ Ramanan, Chella (15 March 2017). "The video game industry has a diversity problem – but it can be fixed". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 28 June 2019. Retrieved 22 August 2019.
- ^ Browning, Kellen; Isaac, Mike (29 July 2021). "Activision, Facing Internal Turmoil, Grapples With #MeToo Reckoning". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 July 2021.
- ^ Paul, Kari (8 August 2021). "Activision Blizzard scandal a 'watershed moment' for women in the gaming industry". The Guardian. Retrieved 9 August 2021.
- ^ a b Maiberg, Emanuel (22 February 2017). "Walk the Line". Vice. Archived from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
- ^ Frauenheim, Ed (11 November 2004). "No fun for game developers?". CNet News. Archived from the original on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 22 August 2019.
- ^ Schreier, Jason (23 October 2018). "Inside Rockstar Games' Culture Of Crunch". Kotaku. Archived from the original on 1 November 2018. Retrieved 23 October 2018.
- ^ Bramwell, Tom (11 January 2010). ""Rockstar Spouse" attacks dev conditions". Eurogamer. Archived from the original on 30 October 2017. Retrieved 31 October 2017.
- ^ Brice, Kath (11 January 2010). ""Rockstar Spouse" accuses dev of pushing its employees "to the brink"". GamesIndustry.biz. Archived from the original on 7 November 2017. Retrieved 31 October 2017.
- ^ Ding, Jaimie (19 March 2022). "Video game workers found their voices in the pandemic. Could unions be next?". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 20 March 2022.
- ^ Leone, Matt (30 September 2015). "The secret developers of the video game industry". Polygon. Archived from the original on 1 October 2015.
- ^ Leone (2015): "In some cases, developers take white label work simply because it's all they can get."
- ^ Yarwood, Jack (27 March 2016). "Easter Eggs: The Hidden Secrets of Videogames". Paste. Archived from the original on 30 March 2016.
- ^ Robinett, Warren (13 May 2003). "Of Dragons and Easter Eggs: A Chat With Warren Robinett". The Jaded Gamer (Interview). Interviewed by Joey Connelly. Archived from the original on 1 March 2014.
- ^ Robinson, Andy (31 July 2019). "Game credits are still a broken mess". Video Games Chronicle. Archived from the original on 31 July 2019.
Many seem to think it's about bruised egos or something. No – like film and TV – it's about getting hired for the next job and not looking like a liar on your CV.
(NB: this article was reposted on 28 March 2021.) - ^ a b c Yarwood, Jack (18 May 2021). "So, you worked on a video game. You might not appear in the credits". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 18 May 2021.
[T]he widespread use of nondisclosure agreements often prevents both in-house and freelance talent from discussing the projects they've worked on, which makes compiling CVs and portfolios particularly difficult.
- ^ Hyman, Paul (3 October 2008). "Giving Credit Where Credit Is Due". Gamasutra. Archived from the original on 11 May 2012.
- ^ Faylor, Chris (19 August 2008). "Warhammer Online Not Crediting All Developers". Shacknews. Archived from the original on 28 February 2011.
only current employees that have continued until the end will be credited in the final game
- ^ Alexander, Leigh (16 December 2009). "They Worked On The Game You Played, But Didn't Get Credit". Kotaku. Archived from the original on 24 February 2021.
Codemasters says its crediting is reserved for 'Those that are with a team through the successful completion of a game, or those that completed their contribution to a specific element of a game'
- ^ Schreier (2018): "That has been a consistent policy because we have always felt that we want the team to get to the finish line".
- ^ Lassman, Forest (9 January 2020). "How Game Companies Use Credits To Reward, Or Punish, Developers". Kotaku. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020.
- ^ Švelch, Jan (29 July 2021). "Developer Credit: Para-Industrial Hierarchies of In-Game Credit Attribution in the Video Game Industry". Games and Culture. 17 (3): 374–398. doi:10.1177/15554120211034408. S2CID 238775902.
- ^ Švelch, Jan (29 July 2021). "Developer Credit: Para-Industrial Hierarchies of In-Game Credit Attribution in the Video Game Industry". Prague Game Production Studies Group. Archived from the original on 7 February 2022. (NB: this is a freely accessible summary of Švelch's paper.)
- ^ Kelly, Andy (4 August 2020). "Code wheels, poison, and star maps: the creative ways old games fought piracy". PC Gamer. Retrieved 4 June 2021.
- ^ "The pros, cons, and future of DRM". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation 7 August 2009. Accessed 7 January 2012.
- ^ "DRM". Archived 2018-07-05 at the Wayback Machine Electronic Frontier Foundation. Accessed 7 March 2014.
- ^ Plafke J. "Why SimCity's DRM is a necessary evil." ExtremeTechnology, Ziff Davis Inc. website 7 March 2013.
- ^ Kain E. "Diablo III fans should stay angry about always-online DRM". Forbes 17 May 2012. Accessed 5 March 2013.
- ^ Gordon, Lewis (5 December 2019). "The Environmental Impact of a PlayStation 4". The Verge. Archived from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- ^ Mills, Evan; Bourassa, Norman; Rainer, Leo; Mai, Jimmy; Shehabi, Arman; Mills, Nathaniel (30 October 2019). "Toward Greener Gaming: Estimating National Energy Use and Energy Efficiency Potential". The Computer Games Journal. 2019 (3–4): 157–178. doi:10.1007/s40869-019-00084-2. S2CID 204942378.
- ^ Jones, Dave (28 January 2020). "Annual environmental impact of gaming is equivalent to 5 million cars in the US alone". PCGamesN. Archived from the original on 28 January 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- ^ Ryan, Jim (22 September 2019). "PlayStation Joins Forces with the United Nations to Combat Climate Change". PlayStation Blog. Archived from the original on 6 January 2020. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- ^ Holt, Kris (23 September 2019). "Microsoft announces plan to make the Xbox carbon neutral". Engadget. Archived from the original on 19 October 2019. Retrieved 28 January 2020.
- ^ Wilson v. Midway Games, Inc. 198 F.Supp.2d 167, 27 March 2002.
- ^ Kent S. "The Mainstream and All Its Perils" The ultimate history of video games:... Three Rivers Press, New York 2001 pp. 544–545. ISBN 0761536434
- ^ Barr S. and Grapes B. Violent children. Greenhaven Press, San Diego 2000 p. 26 ISBN 0737701595 (originally printed as "Computer Violence: Are Your Kids At Risk?" Reader's Digest January 1999.)
- ^ "The Harris levels". Snopes 1 January 2005. Accessed 9 July 2007.
- ^ "Addicted: suicide over Everquest?" Archived 2013-10-05 at the Wayback Machine CBS News 18 September 2002.
- ^ Sweeney J. "Grand Theft Auto IV expected to delight fans and outrage critics". Archived 2013-05-18 at the Wayback Machine Cleveland Plain Dealer. 24 April 2008.
- ^ Hudak S. "State gets OK to try teenager as adult 16-year-old accused of killing Medina girl". Cleveland Plain Dealer 13 May 2003.
- ^ Hudak S. "Teen can stand trial in girl's murder; Father of slain Medina High pupil upset that video game critic won't be in court". Cleveland Plain Dealer 16 September 2003.
- ^ "Can a video game lead to murder?" Archived 2013-05-20 at the Wayback Machine CBS News. 19 June 2005.
- ^ Calvert J. "Families sue over GTAIII-inspired shooting". Game Spot website 22 September 2003.
- ^ "Title unknown". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved 7 April 2011.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Fahey M. "Man pleads guilty to killing over Scarface: the world is yours". Archived 2011-04-11 at the Wayback Machine Kotaku Australia 7 April 2011. Accessed 12 July 2011.
- ^ "Kid shoots parents over Halo 3". Archived 2009-01-13 at the Wayback Machine Tomsguide website 17 December 2008. Accessed 12 July 2011.
- ^ "Teen convicted of murder over Halo 3. Real Tech News 2009.
- ^ "Halo 3 teen killer gets life in murder of mom...parole in 23 years". Archived 2013-10-04 at the Wayback Machine Game Politics website 16 June 2009 Accessed 4 October 2013.
- ^ Harvey M. "Teenager Daniel Petric shot parents who took away Xbox". Archived 2020-11-20 at the Wayback Machine The Times. London. 13 January 2009. Accessed 9 March 2009.
- ^ Chalk A. "Teenagers kill child in 'Mortal Kombat' murder". Archived 2017-02-05 at the Wayback Machine Escapist Magazine. 20 December 2007.
- ^ Michael McWhertor (2 July 2008). "One "Mortal Kombat Killer" Avoids a Prison Term". Kotaku. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ Owen Good (17 January 2009). ""Mortal Kombat Killer" Gets 36 Years". Kotaku. Archived from the original on 22 February 2017. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ Cochran L. "Teens say: video game made them do it". Archived 2009-12-07 at the Wayback Machine ABC News 15 August 2009.
- ^ Kerl G. "Quarrel during video game led to killing, police say". Archived 2013-06-04 at the Wayback Machine Chicago Tribune. 27 April 2007/ Accessed 4 June 2013. ISSN|2165-171X. OCLC 60639020.
- ^ Morace B. "First video game related death of the year". Brave New Gamer 3 January 2010. Accessed 14 September 2010.
- ^ Henrick Karoliszyn
Joe Jackson
Matthew Lysiak
John Lauinger (2 January 2010). "Anthony Maldonado, 9, Stabbed to Death Over a Video Game While Visiting a Family in Harlem". Daily News. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2015. - ^ Owen Good (3 January 2010). "Argument Over a Game Blamed as a Nine-Year-Old Stabbed to Death". Kotaku. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
- ^ Henry D. title=South Phila. "Teenager charged with killing mom". [1] ABC 30 November 2010. Accessed 12 July 2010.
- ^ Sheridan M. "Teen kills mom with claw hammer for taking away his PlayStation, court". Archived 2011-02-20 at the Wayback Machine New York Daily News, 17 February 2011.
- ^ Collins, David (4 May 2013). "Noah Crooks: Boy, 13, 'killed mum after attempting to rape her in row over Call of Duty'". Daily Mirror. Archived from the original on 7 October 2019. Retrieved 16 April 2020.
- ^ Ashcraft B. "Mob blames mass effect for school shooting, is embarrassingly wrong". Kotaku 15 December 2012.
- ^ Saidi N. and Gross D. "After Newtown, some shoppers think twice about violent video games". Archived 2013-02-21 at the Wayback Machine CNN 20 December 2012.
- ^ McFerran D. "UK press pins blame for Sandy Hook massacre on video games". Archived 2012-12-21 at the Wayback Machine Nintendo Life 18 December 2012.
- ^ Curry, Colleen (25 November 2013). "Sandy Hook Report Offers Grim Details of Adam Lanza's Bedroom". ABC News. Archived from the original on 26 November 2013. Retrieved 18 July 2024.
- ^ Ashcraft, Brian (18 December 2012). "British Tabloids Are Blaming Call of Duty and... Dynasty Warriors". Kotaku. Archived from the original on 3 February 2019. Retrieved 18 July 2024.
- ^ Crecente B. "Connecticut town holds drive to collect and destroy violent video games". Archived 2013-02-04 at the Wayback Machine Polygon 2 January 2013.
- ^ Ferguson C. "Video games didn't cause Newtown rampage". Archived 2013-03-01 at the Wayback Machine CNN 20 February 2013.
- ^ Tassi P."Joe Biden sets misguided meeting with video game industry about gun violence". Archived 2017-03-07 at the Wayback Machine Forbes 10 January 2013.
- ^ "Official Sandy Hook Report". Scribd.com. Archived from the original on 31 December 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ a b Kaufman, Ellie (5 August 2019). "Fact check: Are violent video games connected to mass shootings?". CNN. Archived from the original on 5 August 2019. Retrieved 5 August 2019.
- ^ "SOCIEDAD | Asesinatos. Murcia. Detenido el parricida. La policÃa relaciona el crimen de José Rabadán con un videojuego y acusa a un amigo de encubrimiento". 12 February 2010. Archived from the original on 12 February 2010. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ "Game blamed for hammer murder". News.bbc.co.uk. Archived from the original on 28 May 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "Police reject game link to murder". BBC News. Archived from the original on 7 April 2012. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ Lil C. "Death sentence for online gamer". Archived 2007-05-09 at the Wayback Machine China Daily 8 June 2005.
- ^ "Chinese suicide shows addiction dangers". Archived 2010-03-27 at the Wayback Machine Play.tm 3 June 2005.
- ^ "EastSouthWestNorth: The Death of a Young Online Game Player". Zonaeuropa.com. Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ "Technology | S Korean dies after games session". BBC News. 10 August 2005. Archived from the original on 26 January 2018. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ "Man in China dies after three-day Internet session". Reuters. 17 September 2007. Archived from the original on 22 February 2009. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ "China web-user dies after three-day online binge". 16 September 2007. Archived from the original on 30 June 2013.
- ^ Scom T. [2] Game Spot website blog 18 January 2008. Retrieved 12 July 2011.[dead link]
- ^ Reed J. "Thailand bans Grand Theft Auto IV". Archived 2014-12-07 at the Wayback Machine BBC Newsbeat 4 August 2008 25 February 2010.
- ^ Buncombe A. "Grand Theft Auto IV is pulled from Thai shops after killing of taxi driver". Archived 2018-01-05 at the Wayback Machine The Independent, London 5 August 2008. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
- ^ "Thailand bans Grand Theft Auto after taxi driver killing". AFP. 7 August 2008. Archived from the original on 7 August 2008.
- ^ McElroy G. "Sensationalized 'Top Gun' report blames pro gaming for death of Brandon Crisp". Archived 2011-11-20 at the Wayback Machine Kotaku
- ^ "Man jailed for life for toddler Violet Mullen's murder". BBC News. 18 November 2010. Archived from the original on 21 November 2010. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
- ^ "Video game fanatic hunts down and stabs rival player who killed character online". Archived 2018-04-13 at the Wayback Machine The Daily Telegraph, London, 27 May 2010. Accessed 19 September 2010.
- ^ Luke Plunkett (29 May 2010). "A Man Spends Six Months, Plotting a Murder of a Counter-Strike Rival". Kotaku. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 16 June 2015.
- ^ "Man (24) richt bloedbad aan in Alphen a/d Rijn". Archived 2011-04-14 at the Wayback Machine 9 April 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
- ^ "AD legt link tussen schietpartij Alphen en Call of Duty". Archived 2011-04-15 at the Wayback Machine 12 April 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
- ^ "Hij had het altijd over dat spel". De Telegraaf. Archived from the original on 20 November 2011. Retrieved 17 February 2015.
- ^ "Anders Behring Breivik biography". Biography.com. Archived from the original on 5 March 2013. Retrieved 11 March 2013.
On July 22, 2011, a bomb exploded in a car outside the office of Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg in Regjeringskvartalet in central Oslo. The powerful blast killed eight people and injured hundreds... Breivik went on a deadly shooting spree at the camp, killing 69 people, mostly teens.
- ^ Pidd, Helen (19 April 2012). "Anders Breivik 'trained' for shooting attacks by playing Call of Duty". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 17 November 2019. Retrieved 11 March 2013.
The 33-year-old said he practiced his shot using a "holographic aiming device" on the war simulation game, which he said is used by armies around the world for training. "You develop target acquisition", he said. He used a similar device during the shooting attacks that left 69 dead at a political youth camp on the island of Utøya on 22 July.
- ^ Wesley Yin-Poole (3 May 2013). "A Senior Scottish Cop Calls For a Second Look into Prevention of Children Playing Adult Games Online After a 13-Year-Old Boy Slashes His Friend's Throat Following Gears of War 3 Session". Eurogamer. Archived from the original on 17 June 2015. Retrieved 16 June 2015.
- ^ "The killing game". Sacramento News & Review. 14 October 2004. Archived from the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ "Doki Doki: Warnings over suicide-themed video game". BBC News. 28 June 2018. Archived from the original on 18 July 2019.
- ^ Radoff, Jon (8 December 2009). "Six wonderful things about video games". Radoff.com. Archived from the original on 13 December 2009. Retrieved 8 March 2014.
- ^ Ferguson, Christopher J. (2007). "The Good, the bad and the ugly: a meta-analytic review of positive and negative effects of violent video games". Psychiatric Quarterly. 78 (4): 309–316. doi:10.1007/s11126-007-9056-9. PMID 17914672. S2CID 10646929.
- ^ a b Schlesinger, Victoria; Johnson, Steven; Panter, Gary (9 July 2007). "This Is Your Brain On Video Games". Discover Magazine. Archived from the original on 15 December 2014. Retrieved 9 December 2014.
- ^ Daphne Bavelier; Green, C. Shawn (May 2003). "Action video game modifies visual selective attention". Nature. 423 (6939): 534–537. Bibcode:2003Natur.423..534G. doi:10.1038/nature01647. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 12774121. S2CID 1521273. Archived from the original on 6 June 2020. Retrieved 18 March 2020.
- ^ Johnson S. Everything Bad Is Good For You. Penguin Group, New York 2005 pp. 153–156.
- ^ Achtman, R.L.; Green, C.S.; Bavelier, D. (2008). "Video games as a tool to train visual skills". Restorative Neurology and Neuroscience. 26 (4–5): 435–446. ISSN 0922-6028. PMC 2884279. PMID 18997318.
- ^ Nauert, Rick (26 November 2013). "Video Games can help Boost Social, Memory & Cognitive Skills". PsychCenteral. John M. Grohol. Archived from the original on 15 April 2015. Retrieved 15 April 2015.
- ^ Subrahmanyam, K.; Greenfield, P.M. (1994). "Effects of video game practice on spatial skills in girls and boys". Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology. 15 (1): 13–32. doi:10.1016/0193-3973(94)90004-3. S2CID 4829410.
- ^ Olsen C. (2010). "Children's motivation for video game play in the context of normal development" (PDF). Review of General Psychology. 14 (2): 180–187. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.607.8230. doi:10.1037/a0018984. S2CID 2397061. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 28 October 2013.
- ^ Ferguson, C. (17 June 2010). "Violent Video Games Help Relieve Stress, Depression, Says TAMIU Professor". Texas A&M International University. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 13 November 2015.
- ^ Granic, Isabela; Lobel, Adam; Engels, Rutger (January 2014). "The Benefit of Playing Video Games" (PDF). American Psychologist. American Psychological Association. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 November 2016. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
- ^ Kleinman, Zoe (25 November 2020). "Video games 'good for well-being', says University of Oxford study". BBC News. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
- ^ "Groundbreaking new study says time spent playing video games can be good for your wellbeing". Oxford Internet Institute. 16 November 2020. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
- ^ Johannes, Niklas; Vuorre, Matti; Przybylski, Andrew K. (15 November 2020). "Videogame playis positively correlated withwell-being". PsyArXiv. doi:10.31234/osf.io/qrjza. Retrieved 25 November 2020.
- ^ Primack, Brian A., Mary V. Carroll, Megan McNamara, Mary Lou Klem, Brandy King, Michael Rich, Chun W. Chan, and Smita Nayak. "Role of Video Games in Improving Health-Related Outcomes." American Journal of Preventive Medicine. Elsevier Inc., June 2012. 3 April 2014.
- ^ Scholten, Hanekke (2016). "A Randomized Controlled Trial to Test the Effectiveness of an Immersive 3D Video Game for Anxiety Prevention among Adolescents". PLOS ONE. 11 (1): e0147763. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1147763S. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0147763. PMC 4729475. PMID 26816292.
- ^ "Video games are good for girls—if parents play along". Archived 2011-02-05 at the Wayback Machine Brigham Young University. Accessed 12 July 2011.
- ^ Clark A. and Ernst J. "Gaming in technology education." Technology Teacher 2009 68(5) pp. 21–26.
- ^ Chuang T. et al. "Effect of computer based video games on children: an experimental study". Archived 2013-10-29 at the Wayback Machine Educational Technology & Society 2009 12(2) pp. 1–10.
- ^ "Video games: do they have educational value?" Archived 2013-12-30 at the Wayback Machine CQ Researcher 2006–2011 16(40) pp. 937–960. Accessed 31 March 2013.
- ^ Sheff D. Video games: a guide for savvy parents. Random House, New York, 1994 p. 33.
- ^ Sherwood J. "Action video games improve eyesight". Archived 2011-11-14 at the Wayback Machine University of Rochester news.
- ^ "Positive Effects of Video Games on Children | Everyday Life". Global Post. Archived from the original on 19 February 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
- ^ Gibbs, Samuel (8 August 2016). "Positive link between video games and academic performance, study suggests". The Guardian. London, UK. Archived from the original on 8 August 2016. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
- ^ Thierry Karsenti; Julien Bugmann. "Exploring the Educational Potential of Minecraft: the Case of 118 Elementary-School Students". International Conference Educational Technologies 2017 (PDF). pp. 175–179. ISBN 978-989-8533-71-5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 November 2018. Retrieved 18 April 2018.
- ^ Scutti, Susan (8 August 2016). "Teen gamers do better at math than social media stars, study says". CNN Health. Archived from the original on 13 August 2016. Retrieved 9 August 2016.
Video games' bad reputation may be unfair. Teens who were regular gamers scored higher than average in math, reading and science on an international exam, a new study found.
- ^ Wade J. and Beck M. Got game : how the gamer generation is reshaping business forever. Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 2006. ISBN 1578519497 [Nachdr.]
- ^ Herz J. "Joystick nation: how video games ate our quarters, won our hearts and rewired our minds." Little, Brown and Company, New York 1997.
- ^ Greitemeyer, Tobias; Osswald, Silvia (2010). "Effects of prosocial video games on prosocial behavior". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 98 (2): 211–221. doi:10.1037/a0016997. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 20085396. S2CID 17797503.
- ^ Saleem, M.; Anderson, C.A.; Gentile, D.A. (2012). "Effects of prosocial, neutral, and violent video games on children's helpful and hurtful behaviors". Aggressive Behavior. 38 (4): 281–287. doi:10.1002/ab.21428. PMID 25363697. S2CID 23614155.
- ^ Grizzard, Matthew; Tamborini, Ron; Lewis, Robert J.; Wang, Lu; Prabhu, Sujay (2014). "Being Bad in a Video Game Can Make Us Morally Sensitive". Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 17 (8): 499–504. doi:10.1089/cyber.2013.0658. hdl:2152/41144. PMID 24950172.