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Influenza A virus subtype H3N2

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Influenza A virus subtype H3N2 (A/H3N2) is a subtype of influenza A virus (IAV). Some human-adapted strains of A/H3N2 are endemic in humans and are one cause of seasonal influenza (flu).[1] Other strains of H1N1 are endemic in pigs (swine influenza) and in birds (avian influenza).[2] Subtypes of IAV are defined by the combination of the antigenic H and N proteins in the viral envelope; for example, "H1N1" designates an IAV subtype that has a type-1 hemagglutinin (H) protein and a type-1 neuraminidase (N) protein.[3]

Influenza A virus subtype H3N2
Virus classification Edit this classification
(unranked): Virus
Realm: Riboviria
Kingdom: Orthornavirae
Phylum: Negarnaviricota
Class: Insthoviricetes
Order: Articulavirales
Family: Orthomyxoviridae
Genus: Alphainfluenzavirus
Species:
Influenza virus
Serotype:
Influenza A virus subtype H3N2
Notable strains

All subtypes of IAV share a negative-sense, segmented RNA genome.[1] Under rare circumstances, one strain of the virus can acquire genetic material through genetic reassortment from a different strain and thus evolve to acquire new characteristics, enabling it to evade host immunity and occasionally to jump from one species of host to another.[4][5] Major outbreaks of A/H3N2 strains in humans include Hong Kong Flu (1968–1969), and Fujian flu (2003–2004).

Each year, three influenza strains are chosen for inclusion in the forthcoming year's seasonal flu vaccination by the Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System of the World Health Organization (WHO). Since 1999, every annual formulation has included one strain of A/H3N2 as well as two other influenza strains - together representing strains thought most likely to cause significant human suffering in the coming season.[6][7][8]

Seasonal flu

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Main article: Seasonal influenza
See also: List of seasonal influenza vaccines

Seasonal influenza is an annually recurring outbreak of flu, which occurs during the cold half of the year in each hemisphere.[9] Annually, about 3 to 5 million cases of severe illness and 290,000 to 650,000 deaths from seasonal flu occur worldwide.[10] A/H3N2 is one of the prevalent subtypes of flu which contribute to seasonal flu outbreaks, and a strain of A/H3N2 is usually included in the biannual reformulation of the flu vaccine.[11]

Swine flu

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Main article: Swine influenza
 
Pigs can harbor influenza viruses adapted to humans and others that are adapted to birds, allowing the viruses to exchange genes and create a pandemic strain.

A 2007 study reported: "In swine, three influenza A virus subtypes (H1N1, H3N2, and H1N2) are circulating throughout the world. In the United States, the classic H1N1 subtype was exclusively prevalent among swine populations before 1998; however, since late August 1998, H3N2 subtypes have been isolated from pigs. Most H3N2 virus isolates are triple reassortants, containing genes from human (HA, NA, and PB1), swine (NS, NP, and M), and avian (PB2 and PA) lineages. Present vaccination strategies for swine influenza virus (SIV) control and prevention in swine farms typically include the use of one of several bivalent SIV vaccines commercially available in the United States. Of the 97 recent H3N2 isolates examined, only 41 had strong serologic cross-reactions with antiserum to three commercial SIV vaccines. Since the protective ability of influenza vaccines depends primarily on the closeness of the match between the vaccine virus and the epidemic virus, the presence of nonreactive H3N2 SIV variants suggests current commercial vaccines might not effectively protect pigs from infection with a majority of H3N2 viruses."[12]

Avian influenza virus H3N2 is endemic in pigs in China, and has been detected in pigs in Vietnam, contributing to the emergence of new variant strains. Pigs can carry human influenza viruses, which can combine (i.e. exchange homologous genome subunits by genetic reassortment) with H5N1, passing genes and mutating into a form which can pass easily among humans. H3N2 evolved from H2N2 by antigenic shift and caused the Hong Kong Flu pandemic of 1968 and 1969 that killed up to 750,000 humans. The dominant strain of annual flu in humans in January 2006 was H3N2. Measured resistance to the standard antiviral drugs amantadine and rimantadine in H3N2 in humans had increased to 91% by 2005. In August 2004, researchers in China found H5N1 in pigs.[13]

Significant outbreaks

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Hong Kong Flu (1968–1969)

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Main article: Hong Kong flu
 
The influenza viruses that caused Hong Kong flu (magnified about 100,000 times)

The Hong Kong Flu was a flu pandemic caused by a strain of H3N2 descended from H2N2 by antigenic shift, in which genes from multiple subtypes reassorted to form a new virus. This pandemic of 1968 and 1969 killed an estimated one million people worldwide.[14][15][16] The pandemic infected an estimated 500,000 Hong Kong residents, 15% of the population, with a low death rate.[17] In the United States, about 100,000 people died.[18]

Both the H2N2 and H3N2 pandemic flu strains contained genes from avian influenza viruses. The new subtypes arose in pigs coinfected with avian and human viruses and were soon transferred to humans. Swine were considered the original "intermediate host" for influenza, because they supported reassortment of divergent subtypes. However, other hosts appear capable of similar coinfection (e.g., many poultry species), and direct transmission of avian viruses to humans is possible. H1N1 may have been transmitted directly from birds to humans (Belshe 2005).[19]

The Hong Kong flu strain shared internal genes and the neuraminidase with the 1957 Asian flu (H2N2). Accumulated antibodies to the neuraminidase or internal proteins may have resulted in much fewer casualties than most pandemics. However, cross-immunity within and between subtypes of influenza is poorly understood.[citation needed]

The Hong Kong flu was the first known outbreak of the H3N2 strain, though there is serologic evidence of H3N2 infections in the late 19th century. The first record of the outbreak in Hong Kong appeared on 13 July 1968 in an area with a density of about 500 people per acre in an urban setting. The outbreak reached maximum intensity in two weeks, lasting six weeks in total. The virus was isolated in Queen Mary Hospital. Flu symptoms lasted four to five days.[17]

By July 1968, extensive outbreaks were reported in Vietnam and Singapore. By September 1968, it reached India, the Philippines, northern Australia and Europe. That same month, the virus entered California from United States troops returning from the Vietnam War. It reached Japan, Africa and South America in 1969.[17]

Fujian flu (2003–2004)

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Main article: Fujian flu
 
Diagram of influenza virus nomenclature

Fujian flu refers to flu caused by either a Fujian human flu strain of the H3N2 subtype or a Fujian bird flu strain of the H5N1 subtype of the Influenza A virus. These strains are named after Fujian province in China.

A/Fujian (H3N2) human flu (from A/Fujian/411/2002(H3N2)-like flu virus strains) caused an unusually severe 2003–2004 flu season. This was due to a reassortment event that caused a minor clade to provide a haemagglutinin gene that later became part of the dominant strain in the 2002–2003 flu season. A/Fujian (H3N2) was made part of the trivalent influenza vaccine for the 2004–2005 flu season.[20]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b "Influenza A Subtypes and the Species Affected | Seasonal Influenza (Flu) | CDC". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2024-05-13. Retrieved 2024-06-17.
  2. ^ Jilani TN, Jamil RT, Siddiqui AH (November 30, 2020). "H1N1 Influenza". H1N1 Influenza in StatPearls. StatPearls. PMID 30020613. Archived from the original on 12 March 2020. Retrieved 25 August 2020.
  3. ^ CDC (2024-02-01). "Influenza Type A Viruses". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2024-05-03.
  4. ^ Shao W, Li X, Goraya MU, Wang S, Chen JL (August 2017). "Evolution of Influenza A Virus by Mutation and Re-Assortment". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 18 (8): 1650. doi:10.3390/ijms18081650. PMC 5578040. PMID 28783091.
  5. ^ Eisfeld AJ, Neumann G, Kawaoka Y (January 2015). "At the centre: influenza A virus ribonucleoproteins". Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 13 (1): 28–41. doi:10.1038/nrmicro3367. PMC 5619696. PMID 25417656.
  6. ^ "Seasonal Flu Vaccines | CDC". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2024-03-12. Retrieved 2024-08-19.
  7. ^ "Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System (GISRS)". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on October 3, 2011. Retrieved October 22, 2019.
  8. ^ Anker M, Schaaf D, World Health Organization (2000). WHO report on global surveillance of epidemic-prone infectious diseases (PDF) (Report). World Health Organization (WHO). hdl:10665/66485. WHO/CDS/CSR/ISR/2000.1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 October 2022.
  9. ^ "National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID) Factsheet". Archived from the original on 13 October 2005. Retrieved 8 October 2005.
  10. ^ "Influenza (Seasonal)". World Health Organization (WHO). Retrieved 2021-05-10.
  11. ^ Daum, L. T.; Shaw, M. W.; Klimov, A. I.; Canas, L. C.; Macias, E. A.; Niemeyer, D.; Chambers, J. P.; Renthal, R.; Shrestha, S. K.; Acharya, R. P.; Huzdar, S. P.; Rimal, N.; Myint, K. S.; Gould, P. (August 2005). "Influenza A (H3N2) outbreak, Nepal". Emerging Infectious Diseases. 11 (10): 1186–1191. doi:10.3201/eid1108.050302. PMC 3320503. PMID 16102305.
  12. ^ René Gramer, Marie; Hoon Lee, Jee; Ki Choi, Young; Goyal, Sagar M.; Soo Joo, Han (2007). "Serologic and genetic characterization of North American H3N2 swine influenza A viruses". Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research. 71 (3): 201–206. PMC 1899866. PMID 17695595.
  13. ^ WHO (28 October 2005). "H5N1 avian influenza: timeline" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2011.
  14. ^ Paul, William E. (2008). Fundamental Immunology. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 1273. ISBN 9780781765190.
  15. ^ "World health group issues alert Mexican president tries to isolate those with swine flu". Associated Press. April 25, 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  16. ^ Mandel, Michael (April 26, 2009). "No need to panic ... yet Ontario officials are worried swine flu could be pandemic, killing thousands". Toronto Sun. Archived from the original on 2009-06-01. Retrieved 2009-04-26.
  17. ^ a b c Starling, Arthur (2006). Plague, SARS, and the Story of Medicine in Hong Kong. HK University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-962-209-805-3.
  18. ^ "1968 Pandemic (H3N2 Virus)". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 22 January 2019. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
  19. ^ Chapter Two : Avian Influenza by Timm C. Harder and Ortrud Werner Archived 2017-08-09 at the Wayback Machine from excellent free on-line book Influenza Report 2006
  20. ^ CDC article Update: Influenza Activity—United States and Worldwide, 2003–04 Season, and Composition of the 2004–05 Influenza Vaccine published 2 July 2004

Further reading

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