Wikipedia

Higher education in China

(Redirected from Higher Education in China)

In 2023, the university enrollment rate was 60.2% according to the Ministry of Education, representing 47 million mainland Chinese students enrolled in 4-year university and college degree programs in some 3,074 Chinese tertiary institutions.[1] Entry into universities is intended to be meritocratic in which successful entry depends only on the result of the Gaokao entrance examination.[2][3] Usually, 12 years of formal education is a prerequisite for entry into an undergraduate degree.[4] Entry is not influenced or determined by sporting activities, extracurricular programs, donations, or alumni parents and siblings. Chinese education authorities have emphasized meritocracy as a social equalizer.[2]

There are 13 statutory types of academic degrees in China: Bachelor/Master/Doctor of Philosophy, Economics, Law, Education, Literature, History, Science, Engineering, Agriculture, Medicine, Management, Military Science, and Fine Arts. These degree names are designated by the degree program's academic emphasis and the classification of disciplines.[5][6][7][8]

China is also a major destination for international students, being the most popular country in Asia for international students,[9] the leading destination globally for Anglophone African students,[10] and the second most popular in the world.[11] In 2017, China surpassed the U.S. with the highest number of scientific publications.[12][13] There were 17 Chinese universities on lists of the global top 200 behind only the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of the overall representation in the 2023 Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities, a composite ranking system combining three of the world's most influential university rankings (ARWU+QS+ THE).[14] China has dominated the QS BRICS University Rankings and the THE's Emerging Economies University Rankings, claiming seven of the top 10 spots for both rankings. China is also the most-represented nation overall.[15][16] Regardless of various rankings of the Chinese universities, the Ministry of Education of China does not advocate, support or recognize any ranking published by other institutions.[17]

In 2014, the General Office of the Chinese Communist Party and State Council of the People's Republic of China issued guidance on strengthening ideological education in colleges and universities.[18][19] In 2015, a tertiary education development initiative called Double First-Class Construction designed by the central government of the People's Republic of China was launched, which aims to comprehensively develop elite Chinese universities into world-class institutions by improving their faculty departments to world-class level by the end of 2050. The full list of the plan was published in September 2017, which includes 140 universities being approved as the Double First-Class Universities, representing the top 5% of the total 3,012 universities and colleges in China.[20][21]

History

edit
See also: History of education in China

The traditional Chinese education system is based on legalist and Confucian ideals. The teaching of Confucius has shaped the overall Chinese mindset for the past 2500 years.[22] But, other outside forces have played a large role in the nation's educational development. The First Opium War of 1840, for example, opened China to the rest of the world. As a result, Chinese intellectuals discovered the numerous western advances in science and technology. This new information greatly impacted the higher education system and curriculum.

Tianjin University, established in 1895, the first modern university in China. The university was established in October 1895 as Imperial Tientsin University (天津北洋西學學堂) by a royal charter of the Guangxu Emperor of Qing dynasty with Sheng Xuanhuai as its first president and later renamed Peiyang University. It was the first government-run university in modern China where western science and technology was its main focus. The school motto was "Seeking truth from facts" (实事求是). In 1951, followed by an order of the Chinese Communist government, the university was renamed Tianjin University and became one of the largest multidisciplinary engineering universities in China and one of the first 16 national key universities accredited by the nation in 1959.[23][24]

Peking University, established in 1898, is the second modern university of China. It was founded as Imperial Peking University (京師大學堂) in 1898 in Beijing as a replacement of the ancient Guozijian (國子監), the national central institute of learning in China's traditional educational system.

Tianjin University (1895) celebrated its 100th anniversary in 1995. Jiao Tong University (in all Beijing Jiaotong University, Southwest Jiaotong University in Chengdu, Shanghai Jiao Tong University and Xi'an Jiaotong University) followed in 1996. Other national key universities as a part of former Project 985, such as Sichuan University (1896), Zhejiang University (1897), Peking University (1898), Shandong University (1901), Beijing Normal University (1902), Nanjing University (1902), Southeast University (1902), Hunan University (1903), Fudan University (1905), China Agricultural University (1905), Tongji University (1907), Lanzhou University (1909), Tsinghua University (1911), Nankai University (1919), Harbin Institute of Technology (1920), Xiamen University (1921), Northeastern University (China) (1923), Sun Yat-sen University (1924), and Ocean University of China (1924) also recently celebrated their hundredth anniversaries, one after another.

Other notable universities also celebrated their 100 anniversaries, including Hebei Medical University (1894), Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology (1895), Xinxiang Medical University (1896), Huazhong Agricultural University (1898), Wuhan University of Technology (1898), Wuhan University of Science and Technology (1898), Soochow University (1900), Guizhou University (1902), Jiangnan University (1902), Nanjing Agricultural University (1902), Nanjing Normal University (1902), Northwest University (China) (1902), Shanxi University (1902), Nanjing Forestry University (1902), Taiyuan University of Technology (1902), Central China Normal University (1903), Hebei University of Technology (1903), Jinan University (1906), University of Shanghai for Science and Technology (1906), Sichuan Agricultural University (1906), Southwest University (1906), Dalian Maritime University (1909), Shanghai Maritime University (1909), South China Agricultural University (1909), China University of Mining and Technology (1909), Northwest University (1912), Shanghai Ocean University (1912), Henan University (1912), Hohai University (1915), Peking Union Medical College (1917), Shanghai University of Finance and Economics (1917), Central Academy of Fine Arts (1918), Nanchang University (1921), Shanghai University (1922), Yunnan University (1922) and Xinjiang University (1924).

Soviet influence in the early 1950s brought all higher education under government leadership. Research was separated from teaching. The government also introduced a central plan for a nationally unified instruction system, i.e. texts, syllabi, etc. The impact of this shift can still be seen today. Chinese higher education continues its struggle with excessive departmentalisation, segmentation, and overspecialisation in particular.

From 1967 to 1976, China's Cultural Revolution took another toll on higher education, which was devastated more than any other sector of the country. The enrollment of postsecondary students can be used as example to illustrate the impacts. The number dropped from 674,400 to 47,800. This has had a major impact on education in the 21st century. The decline in educational quality was profound.

In 1977, Deng Xiaoping made the decision of resuming the National Higher Education Entrance Examination (Gaokao). The first group that was admitted to college after the 11-year suspension of the Gaokao consisted of 273,000 students, known as the Class of 1977. From the 1980s on, Chinese higher education has undergone a series of reforms that have slowly brought improvement. The government found that schools lacked the flexibility and autonomy to provide education according to the needs of the society. Structural reform of higher education consists of five parts:

  • reforms of education provision
  • management
  • investment
  • recruitment and job-placement
  • inner-institute management—the most difficult.[25]

The reforms aim to provide higher education institutions more autonomy and the ability to better meet the needs of students. Instead of micromanagement, the state aims to provide general planning.

The Provisional Regulations Concerning the Management of Institutions of Higher Learning, promulgated by the State Council in 1986, led to a number of changes in administration and adjusted educational opportunity, direction and content. Reform allowed universities and colleges to:

  • choose their own teaching plans and curricula
  • to accept projects from or cooperate with other socialist establishments for scientific research and technical development in setting up "combines" involving teaching, scientific research, and production
  • to suggest appointments and removals of vice presidents and other staff members;
  • to take charge of the distribution of capital construction investment and funds allocated by the state
  • to be responsible for the development of international exchanges by using their own funds.[citation needed]

Reforms picked up the pace in 2000, with the state aiming to complete the reform of 200 universities operating under China's ministries and start 15 university-based scientific technology parks.[26]

Present day

edit
See also: Types of universities and colleges in China and List of universities in China

In 2019, the Ministry of Education (MOE) reported that there were 2,956 higher education institutions (HEIs) across the country. 2,688 were regular HEIs (including 257 independent colleges), 1,265 universities offered bachelor's degrees, and 828 institutions offered postgraduate programs. In addition, there were 757 non-state colleges/universities (including 257 independent colleges and 1 college for adults). The MOE also reported 40.02 million students enrolled in higher education, an increase of 1.69 million from the year prior.[27]

Despite the large number of HEIS, the higher education system does not meet the needs of 85 percent of the college-age population.[28]

In China, according to ownership-based categories of HEIs, the higher education can be divided into two categories---State-owned or government-owned HEIs, including Regular HEIs, Independent Institutions, Higher Vocational Colleges, Adult HEIs, and non-government or private universities.[29] Regular HEIs is the cornerstone in China's higher education, while private universities development could not be ignored.[30]

Rankings

edit

Double First-Class Construction universities

edit
Main article: Double First-Class Construction

In October 2015, The State Council of the People's Republic of China published the 'Overall Plan for Promoting the Construction of World First Class Universities and First Class Disciplines' (Overall Plan for Double First-Class Construction), which aims to comprehensively develop elite Chinese universities into world-class institutions by building and strengthening their disciplines and faculties, and eventually developing all the universities included in this plan into 'world-first-class' universities by 2050, making new arrangements for the development of higher education in China. The Double First-Class Construction represents a whole new way of ranking universities in China, replacing previous projects such as 'Project 211', 'Project 985' or 'Project Characteristic Key Disciplines'.[31]

In September 2017, the full list of the Double First-Class Construction universities and disciplines was published by the Ministry of Education of China, the Ministry of Finance of China and the National Development and Reform Commission of China, which includes 140 elite Chinese universities (accounted for less than 5% of the higher education institutions in China).[32]

Rankings and international reputation

edit
See also: Rankings of universities in China

The Ministry of Education of China does not advocate, support or recognize any ranking published by other institutions.[17] The quality of universities and higher education in China is internationally recognized as China has established educational cooperation and exchanges with 188 countries and regions and 46 major international organizations, and signed agreements with 54 countries such as the US, British, Germany, Australia and Canada on mutual recognition of higher education qualifications and academic degrees.[33][34]

In 2017, China surpassed the U.S. with the highest number of scientific publications.[12][13] China has dominated the QS BRICS University Rankings and the THE's Emerging Economies University Rankings, claiming seven of the top 10 spots for both rankings. China is also the most-represented nation overall.[15][16] As of 2020, China tops the QS Asia University Rankings list with over 120 universities including in the ranking, and five Chinese universities appear in the Asia Top 10, which is more than any other country.[35]

As of 2023, China tops the list for the first time for the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU)[36] and the U.S. News & World Report Best Global Universities Ranking 2022–2023,[37] two of the fourth most observed global university rankings apart from the QS and THE.[38] There were 17 Chinese universities on lists of the global top 200 behind only the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of the overall representation in the 2023 Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities, a composite ranking system combining three of the world's most influential university rankings (ARWU+QS+ THE).[14]

According to THE China Subject Ratings 2020 conducted by the Time Higher Education World University Rankings, Chinese universities are on a par with their counterparts in the US, the UK, and Germany across 89 subjects ahead of others like France, South Korea, and Russia. The country scores above the global average of B score, with 46 percent of its universities’ grades were A+, A, or A−, only slightly behind the US (49 percent).[39] The QS rankings by subjects 2021 indicated that universities in China now have a record number in the top 50 universities in the world across all 51 subjects in five broad discipline areas: “Arts and Humanities”, “Natural Sciences”, “Social Sciences and Management”, “Engineering & Technology”, and “Life Sciences and Medicines”.[40] In 2020, five Chinese universities appear in the Global Top 10 by the numbers of the International patent applications via the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), which is more than any country.[41]

On 18 September 2020, the members of a Chinese expert group, which was headed by Lin Huiqing, Chairman of the Medical Education Expert Committee of the Ministry of Education and former Vice Minister of the Ministry of Education, unanimously agreed that Tsinghua University has been fully established as a world-class university.[42]

Admission

edit
This paragraph is an excerpt from Gaokao.[edit]
The Nationwide Unified Examination for Admissions to General Universities and Colleges (普通高等学校招生全国统一考试), commonly abbreviated as Gaokao (高考; 'Higher Exam'), is the annual national undergraduate admission exam of China, held in early June. The exam is held by provincial governments under directions from the Ministry of Education and is required for undergraduate admissions to all higher education institutions in the country. The Gaokao is taken by high school seniors at the end of their final year.

International students

edit

With China's rising national strength and popularity of Chinese in the world, China as a study destination attracts thousands of foreign students abroad and the number of foreign students continues to grow rapidly in recent years. Since 2005, China has become the most popular country in Asia and the sixth largest country in the world in hosting international students.[43] The top ten countries with students studying in China include South Korea, Japan, USA, Vietnam, Thailand, Russia, India, Indonesia, France and Pakistan.[44][45][46] According to 2014 data from Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, there were more than 377,054 foreign students from 203 countries or regions study in all the 31 provinces in China, with an increase of 5.77% over the same period last year.[47][48] In 2015, a record breaking 397,635 international students went to China, solidifying its position as the third most popular destination country after only the UK and the US for overseas students.[49] While US and the UK attracted nearly one-third of all globally mobile students, their leadership is under threat in the "Third Wave" of political turbulence and intense competition from English-medium Instruction or English-taught Programs in countries like China and Continental Europe.[50] In 2014, the largest source of foreign students came from Asia, accounting almost 60% of the total, followed by Europe 18%, Africa 11% respectively.[47] For individual country, the top three countries of origins were South Korea (62,923), United States (24,203) and Thailand (21,296).[47] Only 10% of foreign students receive Chinese Government Scholarship and the rest 90% are self-funded.[47]

In 2018, according to the most recent statistics from the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, China (hosting 492,185 international students in 2018) has overtaken the UK (hosting 458,520 international students in 2018 according to Study in UK) to become the host of second largest international students population, after the USA.[51] In 2018, International students have enrolled in over 1004 higher education institutions in China.[52]

Study abroad

edit

Wealthier Chinese families are more likely to send their kids abroad to receive higher education. Free academic atmosphere, high-quality teaching and new way to cultivate talents---all these advantages contribute to the flood of Chinese students arriving in United States, United Kingdom, Germany and other developed countries. Chinese students have been the largest foreign group in USA since 2010, with 157,588 arriving between 2010 and 2011.[47] The same situation happened in United Kingdom and Germany. Western education will likely remain the leading choice for Chinese students due to its cross-disciplinary fields and development of critical thinking.[53]

Partnering can be economically salubrious, either if the scholars choose to stay in the host country or return to the mainland. Most Chinese students who go abroad are among the best and brightest from their home country. Thus, if they choose to stay, they can benefit the economy of their host country when they gain employment and become members of their new communities. If they leave, they may maintain the contacts and connections they may have established, and also leave a positive impression on their hosts.[54]

Funding

edit

Considering institution funding, it varies dramatically among different universities. In order to adapt to the fierce global competition in education, the Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China initiated Project 211 in mid 1990s aimed at strengthening about 100 institutions of higher education and key disciplinary areas as a national priority for the 21st century.[55] On May 4, 1998, President Jiang Zemin declared that “China must have a number of first-rate universities of international advanced level”, so Project 985 was launched.[55] The total number of Project 985 is 39 and all of them belong to 211 project at the same time.[55] The initial aim is to promote China's educational competitiveness and establishment of a number of leading disciplines in the world. In October 2015, the central government of China announced a new plan called Double First-Class Construction to promote the elite universities in China and replace previous Project 211 and Project 985. In September 2017, the full list of Double First-Class Construction was published, which aims to comprehensively develop elite Chinese universities into world-class institutions by building and strengthening their disciplines and faculties, and eventually developing all the universities included in this plan into 'world-first-class' universities by 2050. 140 Chinese elite universities are included in this plan.[21]

Meanwhile, it is also the beginning to widen the gap and cause the imbalanced distribution of scientific research funds between key universities and common public universities. Within the project, it is not only a glory but also hints numerous tangible benefits. The majority of public universities’ development lies to all levels of government funds. Entry in this project means you will gain more research funds. According to another data from Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China, from 2009 to 2013, the total government research funding for 39 Project 985 institutions is 13.9 billion RMB, with 73 Project 211 Institutions approximately 5.1 billion RMB and rest of 670 common undergraduate colleges only 7.9 billion RMB. In June 2016, the Ministry of Education of China reconfirmed that both Project 211 and Project 985 had been abolished and replaced by the Double First-Class Construction.[56][55]

Challenges

edit
See also: Neijuan

Between 2002 and 2020, the percentage of young adults holding a higher diploma increased from 15% to 54%. This aggravates graduate unemployment, underemployment, overqualification, credentialism and educational inflation.[57] As a result of the predicament of unemployment, educators, students, and the Ministry of Education is promoting training in skills for the market economy that would complement the more traditional classroom learning and the focus on "hard" credentials. In Chinese universities, students clubs and special training activities aim to cultivate soft skills in students, assisting in promoting resilient personalities and life skills as preparation for the uncertainties in the job market.[58] While the total number of enrollments in Chinese higher education institutions has been expanding for years, the unemployment rate among young people has also been increasing. According to the National Bureau of Statistics of China, the unemployment rate for urban residents aged 18 to 24 surged from 17.3% to 21.3%,[59] highlighting a significant challenge for the Chinese job market for new graduates.

Meanwhile, in recent years, Chinese university teachers have had low job satisfaction, showing emotional exhaustion and dissatisfaction with the current personnel system, yet, so far, they are powerless to change this.[60]

See also

edit

Notes and references

edit
  1. ^ "China has over 47 mln higher-education students in 2023 - Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China". en.moe.gov.cn. Retrieved September 15, 2024.
  2. ^ a b Li, Siyu (August 24, 2020). ""Chinese-style" meritocracy? Gaokao, the national college entrance examination in China". L'Année sociologique (in French). 70 (2): 469–494. doi:10.3917/anso.202.0469. ISSN 0066-2399.
  3. ^ Gan, Nectar (June 7, 2024). "Record 13 million to sit 'world's toughest' college entrance exam". CNN. Retrieved September 15, 2024.
  4. ^ "Study a Degree in China in English in 2024". China Admissions. Retrieved September 15, 2024.
  5. ^ Ministry of Education (January 22, 2019). "普通高等学校本科专业目录－国务院国有资产监督管理委员会". State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission of the State Council. Archived from the original on July 9, 2022. Retrieved July 9, 2022.
  6. ^ National People's Congress (August 28, 2004). "中华人民共和国学位条例 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站". Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. Archived from the original on July 9, 2022. Retrieved July 9, 2022.
  7. ^ "学位授予和人才培养学科目录（2018年4月更新） - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站". Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. Archived from the original on July 9, 2022. Retrieved July 9, 2022.
  8. ^ "研究生教育学科专业目录（2022年）" (PDF). Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. September 14, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 22, 2022. Retrieved December 10, 2022.
  9. ^ Sheehy, Kelsey (October 8, 2013). "Explore the World's Top Universities". U.S. News & World Report. Archived from the original on October 24, 2014. Asia is among the fastest growing destinations for international students, and foreign enrollment at universities in Indonesia and South Korea have more than doubled since 2005, the agency reports. China continues to be the most popular destination in the region, though, ranking third among countries that host the most international students, IIE reports.
  10. ^ "China tops US and UK as destination for anglophone African students". Victoria Breeze, The Conversation. June 27, 2017. Archived from the original on November 9, 2021. Retrieved February 18, 2018.
  11. ^ "China's 2020 target: reshaping global mobility flows". EAIE. January 27, 2020. Archived from the original on October 10, 2021. Retrieved May 5, 2020.
  12. ^ a b magazine, Jeff Tollefson, Nature. "China Declared World's Largest Producer of Scientific Articles". Scientific American. Archived from the original on October 22, 2021. Retrieved May 9, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ a b Tollefson, Jeff (January 18, 2018). "China declared world's largest producer of scientific articles". Nature. 553 (7689): 390. Bibcode:2018Natur.553..390T. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-00927-4.
  14. ^ a b "Country Analysis | Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities 2023". research.unsw.edu.au. Retrieved December 21, 2023.
  15. ^ a b "QS University Rankings: BRICS 2019". Top Universities. October 2, 2018. Archived from the original on January 20, 2021. Retrieved September 13, 2020.
  16. ^ a b "Emerging Economies". Times Higher Education (THE). January 22, 2020. Archived from the original on February 20, 2020. Retrieved September 13, 2020.
  17. ^ a b "国家教育部:反对各种机构对大学进行综合性排名_新闻中心_新浪网". news.sina.com.cn. Archived from the original on October 30, 2022. Retrieved January 12, 2022.
  18. ^ Fu, Daniel (June 22, 2024). "Xi Jinping's Ideologization of the Chinese Academy". The Diplomat. Retrieved June 22, 2024.
  19. ^ ""Opinions Concerning Further Strengthening and Improving Propaganda and Ideology Work in Higher Education Under New Circumstances"". DigiChina. Stanford University. January 19, 2015. Retrieved June 22, 2024.
  20. ^ "全国高等学校名单 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站". www.moe.gov.cn. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022. Retrieved December 27, 2021.
  21. ^ a b "教育部 财政部 国家发展改革委关于公布世界一流大学和一流学科建设高校及建设学科名单的通知 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站". www.moe.gov.cn. Archived from the original on March 27, 2019. Retrieved December 27, 2021.
  22. ^ Zhang, Dongmei. The situation of Chinese students in Germany: an intercultural perspective.
  23. ^ "中国第一所现代大学-天津大学". Tianjin University. Archived from the original on August 9, 2022. Retrieved April 25, 2022.
  24. ^ "History and Milestones-Tianjin University". www.tju.edu.cn. Archived from the original on January 18, 2022. Retrieved January 18, 2022.
  25. ^ Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. Higher Education in China. Archived May 5, 2007, at the Wayback Machine Beijing, PRC.
  26. ^ China to Accelerate Higher Education Reform. Archived April 3, 2007, at the Wayback Machine People's Daily Online. 27 January 2000.
  27. ^ "Overview of educational achievements in China in 2019 - Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China". Archived from the original on September 22, 2021. Retrieved March 23, 2022.
  28. ^ Porter, Susan. Higher Education in China: The Next Super Power is Coming of Age. Archived September 30, 2007, at the Wayback Machine American Council on Education. 2005.
  29. ^ Zhu, HongZhen; Lou Shiyan (2011). Development and Reform of Higher Education in China. Woodhead Publishing Limited. pp. 41–42. ISBN 9781843346395.
  30. ^ 2015 National College List (Report). People's Republic of China Ministry of Education. May 21, 2015.
  31. ^ "国务院关于印发统筹推进世界一流大学和一流学科建设总体方案的通知_政府信息公开专栏". www.gov.cn. Archived from the original on April 6, 2019. Retrieved December 26, 2021.
  32. ^ "教育部 财政部 国家发展改革委关于公布世界一流大学和一流学科建设高校及建设学科名单的通知 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站". www.moe.gov.cn. Archived from the original on March 27, 2019. Retrieved December 26, 2021.
  33. ^ "China forges agreements with 54 countries on mutual recognition of higher education degrees - Xinhua | English.news.cn". www.xinhuanet.com. Archived from the original on October 23, 2021. Retrieved September 15, 2020.
  34. ^ "Are China's Academic Qualifications Internationally Recognized? | Study In China". www.studyinchina.com.my. Archived from the original on April 16, 2021. Retrieved September 15, 2020.
  35. ^ "QS Asia World University Rankings". Top Universities. Archived from the original on November 30, 2019. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  36. ^ "ShanghaiRanking's Academic Ranking of World Universities 2023 Press Release". www.shanghairanking.com. Retrieved August 16, 2023.
  37. ^ "U.S. News Unveils 2022-2023 Best Global Universities Rankings". U.S. News & World Report. October 25, 2022. Retrieved August 16, 2023.
  38. ^ Symonds, Matt. "The Ranking Of World University Rankings 2022/23". Forbes. Retrieved December 21, 2023.
  39. ^ "THE China Subject Ratings 2020: results announced". Times Higher Education (THE). July 16, 2020. Archived from the original on November 21, 2021. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  40. ^ "Out Now: QS World University Rankings by Subject 2021". Top Universities. March 2, 2021. Archived from the original on May 25, 2021. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  41. ^ "Innovation Perseveres: International Patent Filings via WIPO Continued to Grow in 2020 Despite COVID-19 Pandemic". www.wipo.int. Archived from the original on March 4, 2021. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  42. ^ Tsinghua University. ""Double First Class" Expert Council: Tsinghua University is fully built into a world-class university". Tsinghua University. Archived from the original on September 25, 2020. Retrieved September 24, 2020.
  43. ^ "International Student Mobility: Patterns and Trends". WENR. October 1, 2007. Archived from the original on August 13, 2020. Retrieved September 11, 2020.
  44. ^ "中国成第六大留学目的地 上年外国学生约20万名". Chinanews.com.cn. Archived from the original on October 18, 2008. Retrieved November 11, 2013.
  45. ^ "中国成第六大留学目的地[图]—中国教育网_新闻资讯_出国留学". Chinaedunet.com. Archived from the original on November 11, 2013. Retrieved November 11, 2013.
  46. ^ "中国成第六大留学目的地 上年外国学生约20万名". Chinanews.com. Archived from the original on March 9, 2021. Retrieved November 11, 2013.
  47. ^ a b c d e "2014 Statistics of Foreign Students in China " People's Republic of China Ministry of Education [1][permanent dead link] March 08, 2015
  48. ^ "2014 Statistics of Foreign Students in China " People's Republic of China Ministry of Education March 08, 2015
  49. ^ "China's Rapid Rise As An Academic Destination" Student.com [2] Archived September 23, 2016, at the Wayback Machine September 12, 2016
  50. ^ Choudaha, Rahul (March 2017). "Three waves of international student mobility (1999-2020)". Studies in Higher Education. 42 (5): 825–832. doi:10.1080/03075079.2017.1293872. S2CID 151764990. Archived from the original on June 25, 2017. Retrieved August 17, 2018.
  51. ^ "China's 2020 target: reshaping global mobility flows". EAIE. January 27, 2020. Archived from the original on October 10, 2021. Retrieved May 5, 2020.
  52. ^ "Overview of Education in China - China Education Center". www.chinaeducenter.com. Archived from the original on May 8, 2021. Retrieved March 5, 2021.
  53. ^ "90% Of China’s Super-Rich Want To Send Children Abroad" International Business Times [3] Archived September 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine April 7, 2012
  54. ^ Dynes, Robert. UC Foreign Graduate Students: Why A World-Class University Needs the World’s Best Minds. Archived September 19, 2006, at the Wayback Machine University of California Office of the President. 17 October 2005.
  55. ^ a b c d ""Project 211 and 985" China Education Center Ltd". Archived from the original on July 10, 2015. Retrieved July 31, 2015.
  56. ^ "教育部国务院学位委员会国家语委关于宣布失效一批规范性文件的通知 - 中华人民共和国教育部政府门户网站". www.moe.gov.cn. Archived from the original on March 7, 2019. Retrieved December 26, 2021.
  57. ^ Zuo, Mandy (July 16, 2021). "China's universities produce millions of graduates each year, but many can't get a decent job and end up unemployed or in factories". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on September 21, 2021. Retrieved September 23, 2021.
  58. ^ Hizi, Gil (2019). "Marketised "Educational Desire" and the Impetus for Self-improvement: The Shifting and Reproduced Meanings of Higher Education in Contemporary China". Asian Studies Review. 43 (3): 493–511. doi:10.1080/10357823.2019.1630365. S2CID 198806156.
  59. ^ "National urban unemployment rate of 16-24 year old labor force". National Data from National Bureau of Statistics. June 2023. Retrieved July 25, 2024.
  60. ^ Li, Yan (2013). "Young faculty job perceptions in the midst of Chinese higher education reform: the case of Zhejiang University". The Journal of Psychology. 33 (3): 273–294. doi:10.1080/02188791.2013.787388.

Further reading

edit
  • Agelasto Michael and Bob Adamson (eds). Higher Education in Post-Mao China. Hong Kong University Press, 1998. ISBN 962-209-450-3
  • Hayhoe, Ruth . China's Universities and the Open Door. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe, 1989. xii, 249 p.p. ISBN 087332501X. On the early stages of reform in higher education.
  • Hayhoe, Ruth. China's Universities, 1895-1995 : A Century of Cultural Conflict. New York: Garland Pub., Garland Reference Library of Social Science, 1996. xxv, 299pp. ISBN 0815318596. The competing models of education before and after 1949.
  • Li Mei . "Cross-border flows of students for higher education: Push–pull factors and motivations of mainland Chinese students in Hong Kong and Macau". Higher Education, 2007
  • Rui Yang. Third Delight: The internationalization of higher education in China. Routledge, 2002.
  • Zha Qiang (Ed.) (2013). Education in China. Educational History, Models, and Initiatives. Gt Barrington, MA: Berkshire Publishing
  • Zhou Ji, Minister of the Ministry of Education. Higher Education in China. Cengage Learning; 1st edition (July 30, 2005) ISBN 981-254-364-3
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Higher_education_in_China&oldid=1254535364"