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Islam in Assam

(Redirected from History of Islam in Assam)

Islam is the second largest and fastest-growing religion in Assam. The Muslim population was approximately (2011 census) 10.68 million (more than 1 crore), constituting over 34.22% of the total population of the state as of the 2011 census, giving Assam, the second-largest Muslim percentage in the country after Jammu and Kashmir (state).[2] After Jammu and Kashmir became Union Territory, Assam became the state with largest Muslim percentage in the country. Islam reached the region in the 13th century and Muslims are a majority in almost eleven districts of Assam and highly concentrated in four districts.[3][4][5] In 2021, estimations have predicted that the Muslim population in the state has reached 40%, numbering 14 million (10 million present-day Bangladesh origin Bengali Muslims and 4 million Assamese Muslims), out of total population of 35 million.[6][7][8]

Muslims in Assam
Stone Inscription inside Poa Mecca, Hajo, Assam.
Total population
c. 10.68 million (2011 census)
(34.22% of the state people) Increase
Regions with significant populations
Majority -: South Salmara - 95.2%, Dhubri - 79.67%, Goalpara - 57.52%, Bongaigaon - 50.22%, Barpeta - 70.74%, Morigaon - 52.56%, Nagaon - 55.36%, Darrang - 64.34%, Hojai - 53.65%, Hailakandi - 60.31% and Karimganj - 56.36%.

Significant -: Cachar - 37.71%, Nalbari - 35.96%, Kokrajhar - 28.44%, Chirang - 22.66% and Kamrup - 39.66%.
Languages
Bengali (including Rangpuri and Sylheti) - (10.49 million),[1]
Assamese - (4 million)
Urdu - (1.25 lakhs).

History

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Main article: Islamic Invasions of Assam

One of the most important factors contributing to the arrival and spread of Islam in Assam in the pre-colonial times was repeated invasions by Muslim rulers and generals.[9] Though none of these invasions succeeded in establishing a rule it created a small but thriving Muslim population, aided by local rulers. Later Ahom kings encouraged a small Muslim immigration and even introduced Islamic prayers in court. In the colonial and post-colonial period, the Muslim population exploded in Assam primarily due to immigration.

Early history

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One of the first conversions in Assam to Islam was Ali Mech, a Mech chieftain. A Delhi Sultanate general Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji appeared on the borders of Assam in 1206 and converted Ali Mech who guided him[10] on his expedition to capture Tibet. Khalji had arrived with a force of 10–12,000 horsemen at the Kamrup region,[11] but he was defeated at the Chumbi Valley and was forced to retreat back to Bengal[12][13] with his army annihilated, where he died in the same year.[14] This expedition resulted in Assam's first Muslim population.[15]

The first immigrant settlement occurred in the middle of the 13th century when Malik Ikhtiyaruddin Yuzbak in 1257 occupied some regions of Assam briefly. He introduced khutbah and Friday services.[16] However he was soon defeated by Sandhya, the Rai of Kamarupa, who captured and executed him.[17]: 39–40  In circa 1360, the Sultan of Bengal Sikandar Shah raided the Kamata kingdom and heavily weakened King Indranarayan's authority. However, Sikandar was forced to retreat to Bengal, in order to suppress the invasion of Firuz Shah Tughlaq of Delhi.[18]

Sultanate period

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Panbari Mosque, one of the oldest mosque in Assam located at Dhubri

In 1498, Sultan Alauddin Husain Shah dispatched military general Shah Ismail Ghazi with 24,000 soldiers and a flotilla to conquer Kamata.[19] The conquest was instigated by Sachipatra, a Brahmin whose son was executed by Nilambar for his promiscuity with the queen.[20] Successfully imprisoning King Nilambar of the Khen dynasty,[17] the Bengal Sultanate began issuing coins bearing the Sultan as the "Conqueror of Kamru and Kamta" and publicly inscribed the victory at a stone in Malda.[21] The Sultan appointed his son, Prince Daniyal,[22] as the governor of the newly conquered region; that reached up to Hajo and intended to expand to Central Assam. Ghiasuddin Aulia was a Sufi from Baghdad who arrived after the conquest of Kamata kingdom by Alauddin Husain Shah. He established a khanqah atop the Garurachala Hills in Hajo. Claiming to have brought a lump of soil from Makkah with him, the building came to be known as the Barmaqam Powa-Makkah. Ghiyathuddin died and a mazar (mausoleum) was built there.[23][24]

A Baro-Bhuyan confederation led by Gandharva Rai's descendant Harup Narayan was successful in removing the Sultanate influence, but the Baro-Bhuyans themselves were removed by Vishwa Singha who established the Koch dynasty in 1515.[20][25][26] The Sultanate rule lasted for about 15 years.

Turko-Afghan soldiers who were taken as prisoners of wars by the Ahom kingdom in the 16th were later assimilated by the local population, but maintained a semblance of their Islamic beliefs and worked as brass metal workers.[citation needed]

 
The dargah housing the Panch Pir collective, a group of five mystics that had joined Ram Singh I in the Mughal invasion of Assam.

Mughal period

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The dargah of Azan Faqir, a Sufi saint who helped spread Islam in the region.
 
Even after the state-sponsored expulsion of Mughals in 1682, King Sukhrungphaa of the Tungkhungia dynasty was said to have continued to pay great attention to the Powa-Makkah Mosque in Hajo.

In 1613, the Mughal emperor Jahangir appointed Muhammad Zaman Karori of Tehran as the Amil of Sylhet. Zaman took part in Islam Khan I's Assam expedition and was instrumental to the capture of Koch Hajo.[27] The Mughals also ruled Goalpara (as a part of their Bengal Subah), but could not subdue the other parts of Assam.[28] The Mughals established four sarkars in the newly acquired land---among which were Dhekeri (between Sankosh and Manas) and Kamrup (between Manas and Barnadi).[29] Kamrup was also renamed as Shujabad, after Shah Shuja, the Subahdar of Bengal.[30]

In 1630, a Muslim saint from Baghdad popularly known as Azan Faqir settled in Sivasagar. He preached to the local population about Islam and as a result, many converted and became his disciples.[citation needed] His mausoleum is present in Saraguri Chapori.

There were a number of Muslim rulers of Kamrup during this period and they were referred to as the Faujdars of Shujabad.[31] The sixth faujdar, Lutfullah Shirazi, built a hilltop mosque in Koch Hajo in 1657. The mosque contained the mazar (mausoleum) of Prince Ghiyath ad-Din Awliya of Iraq, who is commonly credited for introducing Islam to the region.[32] The Mughals lost Kamrup forever in 1682 after the Battle of Itakhuli. Incomplete list of Faujdars of Guahati:

  1. Makram Khan (1612-1614)
  2. Mir Sufi (1614-1616)
  3. Shaykh Kamal (1616-1632)
  4. Abd as-Salam (1632-1638)
  5. Noorullah Khan Herati (1638-1656)
  6. Lutfullah Shirazi (1656-1658), built a hilltop mosque in Hajo in 1657.[27]

British Raj

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When Assam came under colonial rule, the British brought with them a number of immigrant Bengali settlers (mostly Bengali Muslims from Eastern Bengal region, now Bangladesh). These immigrants encouraged other Bengalis to settle in Assam for economic and social reasons.[33] The fertile land of Assam and its vast expanse was inhabited by indigenous populace at that time( that is, vast lands and forests were present but fewer people) which then attracted a large number of landless immigrant peasants from Bengal presidency, nearly 85% of whom were Muslims. The tea planters and immigrant Marwari businessmen, who needed workers, also welcomed the migrants.[34]

Early establishments of these immigrant Bengalis were in the Goalpara district, mostly in the char (riverine) lands and reserved forests.[33] Most of these Muslim immigrants were known as "Miyas". Many of them came from the Northeast part of Rangpur and many of them came from Mymensingh, they were sometimes referred to as Bongal meaning Outsider.[35]

After the Government of India Act 1935, a Legislative Assembly was established in Assam in 1937. The Muslim League, led by Muhammed Saadulah, formed a minority government in the state and he again encouraged large scale immigration from then Bengal.[34]

Independence

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The Jayantipur Bor Masjid near Kuwarital was constructed in 1570.
 
The Chanmaguri Mosque near Rangiya, Kamrup.

After the Sylhet referendum in 1947, the Muslim-majority Sylhet region went to East Pakistan while some Muslim-majority areas such as the Karimganj district went to Assam, India.[36][37]

Assam has some indigenous Muslims like the Gauria, Maria and Deshi, though they are very few as compared to the large-scale Bengal-originating immigrants. Thus, there have been concerns that illegal immigration from neighbouring East Pakistan in India has contributed to a sharp rise in the Muslim population of Assam and has slowly destabilized the native inhabitants of Assam. This fear of "demographic invasion" by East Pakistani has been a political issue in Assam since the days of the Assam Movement (1979–1985).[38] In 2001, there were 6 Muslim-majority districts in the state of Assam. By 2011, this number had increased to 9.[39] However, some have stated these numbers have declined in recent years, though there is no concrete proof.[40]

Assam Movement and accord

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The Assam Movement or the Assam Agitation (1979-1985) led by All Assam Students Union (AASU) and the 'All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad' (AAGSP) was a popular uprising to drive out the illegal immigrants from Bengal/Bihar etc. The movement ended with the signing of the Assam Accord by leaders of AASU-AAGSP and the Government of India under PM Rajiv Gandhi. During this period of six long years of the historic movement, reportedly, 855 people (later on 860 according to AASU reports) sacrificed their lives in the hope of an "infiltration free Assam" in the 1979-1985 Assam agitation. In addition, the infamous Nellie and Khoirabari massacre also took place during this time claiming the lives of 2,191 and 100-500 respectively.

The Assam Accord (1985) was a Memorandum of Settlement (MoS) signed between representatives of the Government of India and the leaders of the Assam Movement for the indigenous ethnic groups in New Delhi on 15 August 1985. The fundamental aspect of the Assam Accord was: foreigners who came to Assam on or after 25 March 1971, shall continue to be detected; deleted and practical steps shall be taken to expel such foreigners. The indigenous people of Assam (by meaning indigenous is for those who are living since ages even before colonization took place in 1826 as per UN definition of the indigenous people).

Demographics

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Decadal presence of Muslims in Assam
YearPop.±%
1901 303,170—    
1911 634,101+109.2%
1921 880,426+38.8%
1931 1,279,388+45.3%
1941 1,696,978+32.6%
1951 1,995,936+17.6%
1961 2,765,509+38.6%
1971 3,594,006+30.0%
1981 4,722,467+31.4%
1991 6,373,204+35.0%
2001 8,240,611+29.3%
2011 10,679,345+29.6%
2021 14,012,874+31.2%
Source: Census of India
 
Ilias Ali on a journey to propagate family planning among the riverine Muslims of rural Kamrup.

Assamese is the official language of the state and the most widely spoken, and so it serves as a lingua franca for inter-ethnic communications. Bengali, which is an official language in Assam's Barak Valley, is also a popular common language among certain communities.

The Assamese Muslims are often divided into four subgroups; Deshi, Maria, Gauria and Syeds. Some of these people are descendants of defeated Mughal soldiers, captured in Ahom–Mughal conflicts, who eventually married native Assamese women and adopted Assamese language and culture. Their population totals to roughly 4 million, comprising 12.8% of state population. The Syeds claim to be descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.[41][42][43]

The Deshi are descendants of indigenous converts to Islam from the Koch, Mech, Rabha, Boro. They consider Ali Mech, the 13th-century chief, as their founding father.[44] This group mainly converses in Goalpariya and Rajbanshi, as opposed to Boro and Rabha. They are mainly found in the western districts of Goalpara, Kokrajhar, Dhubri and South Salmara-Mankachar (i.e. Lower Assam).[45]

The Maria are descended from captured Muslim soldiers who were part of Bakhtiyar Khalji's army in 1206. They are named as such because they were engaged in the bell-metal and smithy industry, the word Maria meaning one who hits metals. On the other hand, the Gauria are descendants of Muslim soldiers who accompanied Turbak Khan during his conquest of Assam in 1532. This army hailed from Gaur in Bengal, so are referred to as Gauria. The Mariya and Gauria are minority groups and can be found in Sivasagar, Jorhat, Tinsukia, Golaghat, Kamrup and some other districts in Assam. They speak Assamese language as their own mother tongue.[46]

The Sylheti Muslim of Barak Valley. Barak Valley consists of 3 districts namely Cachar, Karimganj, Hailakandi. Karimjang was a sub division of Sylhet district before 1947. However, the Radcliffe Boundary Commission separated Karimganj from Sylhet. The district of Hailakandi and Cachar were under Twipra Kingdom and subsequently under Koch Kingdom from 16th-18th century A.D, followed by Kachari Kingdom from 18th-19th century A D. The Sylheti Muslims were there even before the Kacharis but less in number. There were no natural boundaries between Karimganj and Cachar so migration is bound to happen.The indigenous Muslims in Barak Valley (comprising districts of Cachar, Hailakandi and Karimganj) bear surnames like Choudury, Mazumdar, Laskar, Barlaskar, Barbhuiya, Mazarbhuiya, Talukdar and Hazari and other regular titles mostly bought from Kachari kings Krishan Chandra and Govinda Chandra. Besides them, Manipuri Muslims are also believed to have settled in Barak Valley. So they can be said to have technically existed in Assam even before the Ahoms.[citation needed]

The Bengali-speaking Miya people are descended from Muslim immigrants from the modern-day Bangladeshi divisions of Mymensingh, Rangpur and Rajshahi. They are concentrated in the central and lower Assam districts such as Dhubri, Morigaon, Goalpara, Kamrup, Darrang, Nagaon, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, South Salmara district, Nalbari, Chirang and Bodoland region. Their population is around 10.49 million, comprising about 30% of the state population, out of 40% of the Assam's total Muslim population as of 2021 year estimation report.[47][48][41][49]

The third group are the descendants of Muslim migrants from Hindi belt, who speak Hindustani. Their population is about 1.25 lakhs in Assam, comprising 0.4% of state population as of 2011. They are mainly found in Brahmaputra valley.[50]

Population

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Percentage and population of Islamic religion followers in Assam by decades
Year Percentage (%) Muslim Population

( )

Total population
1901 9.22% 303,170 3,289,680
1911 16.48% 634,101 3,848,617
1921 18.99% 880,426 4,636,980
1931 23.01% 1,279,388 5,560,371
1941 25.35% 1,696,978 6,694,790
1951 24.86% 1,995,936 8,028,856
1961 25.52% 2,765,509 10,837,329
1971 24.57% 3,594,006 14,625,152
1981 26.18% 4,722,467 18,041,248
1991 28.43% 6,373,204 22,414,322
2001 30.92% 8,240,611 26,655,528
2011 34.22% 10,679,345 31,205,576
2021 40% 14,012,874 35,032,185

Source: (Census of India) 1901-2021[51][52]

• Variation for two decades (1971–1991). In 1981, census was not conducted in Assam due to disturbed conditions resulting from insurgency. Muslims in Assam have recorded the most dramatic decline in fertility since NFHS-3, which was conducted 14 years earlier. The number of children who would be born per woman — or the total fertility rate (TFR) — of the Muslim community in Assam is at 2.4 which is higher than the 1.6 for Hindus as of 2019-20 research by the fifth National Family Health Survey. The reduction in fertility among Muslims has been from 3.6 in 2005–06 to 2.4 in 2019–20, a drop of 1.3 compared to 0.4 among Hindus in the same period, although from a lower base.[53] Muslim percentage have increased from 9.22% in 1901 to 34.22% in 2011 (which is a sharp rise of 21.82% for past 120 years). In 2021, some estimates have placed Assam's Muslim population at about 14 million, out of 35 million total population, thus making up 40% of the state population.[54][55][56][57]

Population by district (2011 year)

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Below is a breakdown of the Muslim population by district in the Indian state of Assam according to the 2011 Census of India: [3] Muslims are majority in eleven districts out of thirty-three in Assam. Muslims are majority in Dhubri, Bongaigaon, Goalpara, Barpeta, Morigaon, South Salmara district, Hojai, Nagaon, Darrang, Karimganj and Hailakandi. Highest concentration in Cachar, Nalbari, Kamrup, Kokrajhar and Chirang.

# District Total population Muslim population Percentage
1 Baksa 950,075 135,750 14.29%
2 Barpeta 1,693,622 1,198,036 70.74%
3 Bongaigaon 738,804 371,033 50.22%
4 Cachar 1,736,617 654,816 37.71%
5 Chirang 482,162 109,248 22.66%
6 Darrang 928,500 597,392 64.34%
7 Dhemaji 686,133 13,475 1.96%
8 Dhubri 1,949,258 1,553,023 79.67%
9 Dibrugarh 1,326,335 64,526 4.86%
10 Dima Hasao 214,102 4,358 2.04%
11 Goalpara 1,008,183 579,929 57.52%
12 Golaghat 1,066,888 90,312 8.46%
13 Hailakandi 659,296 397,653 60.31%
14 Jorhat 1,092,256 54,684 5.01%
15 Kamrup 1,517,542 601,784 39.66%
16 Kamrup Metropolitan 1,253,938 151,071 12.05%
17 Karbi Anglong 956,313 20,290 2.12%
18 Karimganj 1,228,686 692,489 57.36%
19 Kokrajhar 887,142 252,271 28.44%
20 Lakhimpur 1,042,137 193,476 19.57%
21 Morigaon 957,423 503,257 52.56%
22 Nagaon 2,823,768 1,563,203 55.36%
23 Nalbari 771,639 277,488 35.96%
24 Sivasagar 1,151,050 95,553 9.30%
25 Sonitpur 1,924,110 350,536 17.22%
26 Tinsukia 1,327,929 48,373 3.64%
27 Udalguri 831,668 105,319 12.66%
28 Hojai 931,218 499,565 53.65%
29 South Salmara district 249,508 244,590 98.03%
30 Majuli district 167,304 592 0.35%
Assam (Total) 31,205,576 10,679,345 34.22%

Indigenous Assamese Muslims

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Assamese Muslim community is composed of different groups -

Muslim-Axamia: The Muslim-Axamia community represents a significant indigenous Muslim population in Assam. Known by various names such as Goriya, Tholua, or Khilonjia, they have been an integral part of Assam's cultural landscape for centuries. Their distinct identity adds to the intricate tapestry of Assamese culture.[58]

The lineage of Deshi's (Desi Community), believed to be among the first batch of people in Assam to have embraced Islam, is traced back to Ali Mech, a Koch-Rajbongshi.[59]

Juluha Muslims: The presence of Juluha Muslims, originating from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, introduces a North Indian influence to Assam's cultural amalgamation. Their migration to Assam has played a role in shaping the religious and social dynamics of the region.[60]

On 5 June 2022, by cabinet decision of the Assam Government,[61][62] five groups of indigenous Assamese Muslims were recognized, namely Goria, Moria, Deshi, Jalah (Juluha) and Syed.[63][64][65][66]

On 3 October 2023, the Assam Government announced its intention to conduct a survey aimed at assessing the socio-economic status of indigenous Muslims in Assam. Some observers considered this an attempt to differentiate between the Bengali-speaking 'Miya' Muslims and the state's native Muslim population.[67] The AIUDF Party spokesperson accused the BJP of employing a 'divide and rule' strategy in Assam, emphasizing their alleged focus on creating divisions within the Muslim population by exploiting differences between indigenous and non-indigenous groups for political gains.[68]

Discrimination against Bengali 'Miya' Muslims

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Bengali-speaking Muslims, also known as Miya people, who initially migrated from Eastern and Northern Bengal during the British Raj, hold significant numerical influence, determining the outcomes of approximately 30 assembly seats out of Assam's 126 constituencies.[69] They in Assam have faced repeated and increased attacks.[70] In 1983, around 3000 Bengali Muslims were killed in the Nellie massacre, (unofficial figures run at more than 10,000).[71][72]

During the 2012 Assam violence there was communal riot between Bengali-origin Muslims and the indigenous Bodo people.[73] Almost 80 people were killed, most of whom were Bengali Muslims and some Bodos. Nearly, 400,000 people were displaced to migrant camps, most being Muslims.[74] Indian nationalist politicians have accused Bangladesh of trying to expand its territory by ostensibly promoting illegal immigration. However, Indian government census reports note a decline in immigration from Bangladesh between 1971 and 2011.[75][76]

In Baksa district of Assam, from the night of 1 May 2014 until the early morning hours of 3 May a series of attacks occurred on Bengali Muslims in Assam. The perpetrator is unknown, but is suspected to be the National Democratic Front of Bodoland's Songbijit faction.[77] Speculated to be revenge for not voting for the National Democratic Front in the Lok Sabha elections,[78] the death toll reached 32, mostly Muslims.[79]

On 7 June 2019, 82 families comprising more than 1,000 people — all Muslims — were evicted from the Rajanikhal forest village under the Haiwaithang range, which interestingly falls inside Barak valley's Forest Minister Parimal Suklabaidya's home constituency Dholai.[80][81]

On 10 June 2021, nearly 100 families of about 500 Bengali-speaking Muslims were rendered homeless through land eviction, leaving them with no option but to take shelter near a road. A similar drive was also carried out on 17 May at Jamugurihat in North Assam's Sonitpur district which have evicted 25 Muslim families, all belonging to the Bengali speaking groups. The district administration officials said they had illegally occupied government land and did not vacate it despite several warnings in the past.[82][83]

Many Bengali speaking Muslims in Assam are victim of NRC which, they claim, directly declared them under D voter category. Citing the statistics, the letter alleged that the numbers suggest there was pressure from State authorities to declare more persons as foreigners as far as possible. Between 1985 and 2016, out of 468,934 referrals, 80,194 Bengali speaking Muslims were declared as foreigners. In 2017, 13,434 persons from the same community were declared foreigners.[84][85] Assam last NRC which was conducted on 2019 year, have found that 1.9 million people names were out of the list, of which nearly around 5 lakhs Bengali speaking Muslims names were excluded.[86]

On 21 September 2021, the government of Assam evicted around 5,000 Bengali speaking Muslims in Darrang district and the claimed reason for their eviction was that they had allegedly illegally encroached upon government lands. It has been also reported that two mosques and a Madrassa were also demolished during the drive, however, no evidence had been shown for the allegations.[87] As per as media report, two Muslims (including a kid) were shot to death by the police firing.[88]

On first week of January 2023, Eviction Drive were again carried out by Assam government in Lakhimpur district, where around 300 Bengali-Muslim Families homes and occupation were destroyed permanently, thus making them homeless and jobless.[89][90]

In August 2024, after a rape case in Dihing by where convicts were from Miya Bangladeshi Community, various organizations, including the All Tai Ahom Students Union (ATASU), Asomiya Yuva Manch, Bir Lachit Sena, Garia Maria Desi Jatiya Parishad (representing Indigenous Assamese Muslims), and others, issued an ultimatum for the bangladeshi Miya people to leave Upper Assam. Assam CM Himanta Biswa Sarma sparked controversy by stating in the Assembly that he wouldn't be able to maintain law and order if people from Lower Assam moved to Upper Assam against the wishes of the indigenous population, highlighting ethnic tensions rather than religious ones.[91]

On 3 September 2024, approximately 28 Miya Muslims were placed in a detention camp in Assam.[92]

Illegal immigration

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Census of India between (2001-2011) have shown that Bengali Muslim population grows 15-17% in Assam specially in the bordering districts over the past decade.[93] In February 2020, the Assam Minority Development Board announced plans to segregate illegal Bengali Muslim immigrants from the indigenous Muslims of the state, though some have expressed problems in identifying an indigenous Muslim person. According to the board, there are 1.4 crore (14 million) Muslims in the state, of which 10 million are of Bengali origin, and rest are Indian origin indigenous Assamese.[94][95][96] Allegedly that the number of 'illegal Bangladeshis' in Assam of all religions is about 1 crore (10 million) and are scattered across the length and breadth of the state.[97][98] A report reveals that out of total 33 districts in Assam, Bangladeshis dominate almost 15 districts of Assam.[99][100][101] Several people reveal that Bangladeshi roumers made them specially Muslims victimized of "D" voters. This is even more problematic when names have been left out even after included on draft NRC by providing proper legacy papers.[102]

Notable Muslims from Assam

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See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ "East Bengal rooted Muslim or Miyah and Line System in Assam-1920". Indilens.com. 11 December 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2019.
  2. ^ "Why has India's Assam erupted over an 'anti-Muslim' law?". BBC News. 13 December 2019.
  3. ^ a b 2011 Census Data: Assam.
  4. ^ "India's religions by numbers". The Hindu. 26 August 2015. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
  5. ^ "India - Muslim population 2011". Statista. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
  6. ^ "The JSPA claims Assam today has about 1.4 crore Muslims as of 2021". The Hindu. 15 April 2021.
  7. ^ "The politics behind Himanta Biswa Sarma's love for Assam's 'indigenous' Muslims". India Today NE. 7 July 2022. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
  8. ^ "Assam muslim population have increased from 35% in 2011 to 40% in 2021". India today.
  9. ^ "Of these the most important was a series of Muslim invasions on this region beginning with the first decade of the 13th century and ending by the later part of the 17th century." (Baruah 1978:570)
  10. ^ "The first invasion was guided by Ali Mech whom Muhammad had converted to Islam. This was perhaps the earliest instance of proselytization which synchronized with their appearance on the border of Assam." (Kar 1980:68)
  11. ^ Bayur, Yusuf Hikmet (1946–1947). Hindistan tarihı ... (in Turkish). Türk tarih kurumu basımevi. p. 273. OCLC 458672248.
  12. ^ Muhammad Mojlum Khan (2013). The Muslim Heritage of Bengal. Kube. p. 18. ISBN 9781847740625.
  13. ^ D. Nath (1989). History of the Koch Kingdom, c. 1515 – 1615. Mittal. p. 9. ISBN 9788170991090.
  14. ^ "Most of his followers had drowned. Bakhtyar himself crossed the Karatoya river with a few hundreds only. Befriended by the Mech chief he could reach Devkot south of Dinajpur and then return to Gaur, dying there grief stricken, in 1206." (Sarkar 1992b:37)
  15. ^ (Sarkar 1992b:37)
  16. ^ "The first wave of infiltration flowed in the mid 13th century (1257 A.D.) when this region was for the first time, occupied by the Bengal Sultan Malik Ikhtiyar-ud-din Yuzbag Tughril Khan, "who introduced the reading of the khutbah and Friday religious services." (Baruah 1978:570)
  17. ^ a b Sarkar, J N (1992). "Chapter IV: Early Rulers of Koch Bihar". In Barpujari, H. K. (ed.). The Comprehensive History of Assam. Vol. 2. Guwahati: Assam Publication Board. p. 46.
  18. ^ Baruah, S L (1986). A Comprehensive History of Assam. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 178–179.
  19. ^ Majumdar, R.C. (ed.) (2006). The Delhi Sultanate, Mumbai: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, pp.215-20
  20. ^ a b Nath, D. (1989). History of the Koch Kingdom, C. 1515-1615. Delhi: Mittal Publications. p. 70. ISBN 8170991099.
  21. ^ Sircar, D. C. (2008). Studies in Indian Coins. Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. ISBN 978-81-208-2973-2.
  22. ^ Desai, Ziyaud-Din A. (2003). Purā-prakāśa: Recent Researches in Epigraphy, Numismatics, Manuscriptology, Persian Literature, Art, Architecture, Archaeology, History and Conservation : Dr. Z.A. Desai Commemoration Volume. Bharatiya Kala Prakashan. p. 244. ISBN 978-81-8090-007-5.
  23. ^ Mumtaz, Nahida (2020). SUFIS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO THE CULTURAL LIFE OF MEDIEVAL ASSAM IN 16-17"' CENTURY. Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh: Aligarh Muslim University. pp. 83–88.
  24. ^ (Sarkar 1992:47–48)
  25. ^ De Montebello, Philippe (1982). Notable Acquisitions, 1981-1982. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-87099-328-2.
  26. ^ Sarkar, Jagadish Narayan (1985). Hindu-Muslim relations in Bengal: medieval period. Delhi: Idarah-i Adabiyat-i-Delli. p. 52. ISBN 9780836418026.
  27. ^ a b Syed Mohammad Ali. "A chronology of Muslim faujdars of Sylhet". The Proceedings Of The All Pakistan History Conference. Vol. 1. Karachi: Pakistan Historical Society. pp. 275–284.
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References

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  • Baruah, S L (1978). "The Muslim Population of Pre-British Assam: Their Social Status and Role in Cultural History". Proceedings of the Indian Historical Congress. 39: 570–580. JSTOR 44139398.
  • Kar, M (1980). "Muslim Immigration to Assam". Social Scientist. 8 (7): 67–75. doi:10.2307/3516659. JSTOR 3516659.
  • Sarkar, J. N. (1992b), "Chapter II The Turko-Afghan Invasions", in Barpujari, H. K. (ed.), The Comprehensive History of Assam, vol. 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, pp. 35–48
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