Hollow fiber membranes (HFMs) are a class of artificial membranes containing a semi-permeable barrier in the form of a hollow fiber. Originally developed in the 1960s for reverse osmosis applications, hollow fiber membranes have since become prevalent in water treatment, desalination, cell culture, medicine, and tissue engineering.[1] Most commercial hollow fiber membranes are packed into cartridges which can be used for a variety of liquid and gaseous separations.
Manufacturing
editHFMs are commonly produced using artificial polymers. The specific production methods involved are heavily dependent on the type of polymer used as well as its molecular weight. HFM production, commonly referred to as "spinning", can be divided into four general types:
- Melt Spinning, in which a thermoplastic polymer is melted and extruded through a spinneret into air and subsequently cooled.[3]
- Dry Spinning, in which a polymer is dissolved in an appropriate solvent and extruded through a spinneret into air.[4]
- Dry-Jet Wet Spinning, in which a polymer is dissolved in an appropriate solvent and extruded into air and a subsequent coagulant (usually water).[4]
- Wet spinning, in which a polymer is dissolved and extruded directly into a coagulant (usually water).[4]
Common to each of these methods is the use of a spinneret, a device containing a needle through which solvent is extruded and an annulus through which a polymer solution is extruded. As the polymer is extruded through the annulus of the spinneret, it retains a hollow cylindrical shape. As the polymer exits the spinneret, it solidifies into a membrane through a process known as phase inversion. The properties of the membrane -such as average pore diameter and membrane thickness- can be finely tuned by changing the dimensions of the spinneret, temperature and composition of "dope" (polymer) and "bore" (solvent) solutions, length of air gap (for dry-jet wet spinning), temperature and composition of the coagulant, as well as the speed at which produced fiber is collected by a motorized spool. Extrusion of the polymer and solvent through the spinneret can be accomplished either through the use of gas-extrusion or a metered pump. Some of the polymers most commonly used for fabricating HFMs include cellulose acetate, polysulfone, polyethersulfone, and polyvinylidene fluoride.[5]
After fibers are created, they are typically assembled together in a membrane module, with many fibers in parallel. Fiber ends are fixed together in a resin or epoxy at both ends.[6] This part may be cut clean through to more readily expose their entrance/exits. Typically, these are place inside a cylinder, which has inlets and outlets on opposite sides for the bore (Lumen) side, and side ports for allowing flow to go over the membranes on the shell side. Typically, the higher pressure feed is on the bore side, to avoid fiber collapse.
Characterization
editThe properties of HFMs can be characterized using the same techniques commonly used for other types of membranes. The primary properties of interest for HFMs are average pore diameter and pore distribution, measurable via a technique known as porosimetry, a feature of several laboratory instruments used for measuring pore size.[7] Pore diameter can also be measured via a technique known as evapoporometry, in which evaporation of 2-propanol through the pores of a membrane is related to pore-size via the Kelvin equation.[8][9] Depending on the diameters of pores in an HFM, scanning electron microscopy or transmission electron microscopy can be used to yield a qualitative perspective of pore size.
Applications
edit
Hollow fiber membranes are ubiquitously used in industrial separations, especially the filtration of drinking water.[11]
Industrial water filters are mainly equipped with ultrafiltration hollow fiber membranes. Domestic water filtration systems have microfiltration hollow fiber membranes. In microfiltration a membrane pore diameter of 0.1 micrometers cuts-off microorganisms like germs and bacteria, Giardia cysts and other intestinal parasites, as well removing sediments. Ultrafiltration membranes are capable of removing not only bacteria, but also viruses.
Hollow fibers are commonly used substrates for specialized bioreactor systems, with the ability of some hollow fiber cartridges to culture billions of anchorage-dependent cells within a relatively low (<100 mL) bioreactor volume.[12]
Hollow fibers can be used for drug efficacy testing in cancer research, as an alternative to the traditional, but more expensive, xenograft model.[13]
Hollow fiber membranes are used in Membrane oxygenators in extracorporeal membrane oxygenation which oxygenates blood, replacing lungs in critically ill patients.
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (Eolss): v.1 : Desalination and Water Resources (Desware): Membrane Processes. Oxford: EOLSS Publishers Co Ltd. 2010. ISBN 978-1-84826-877-7.
- ^ Oh, Jinwoo; Fix, Andrew J.; Ziviani, Davide; Braun, James E.; Warsinger, David M. (2024). "Design optimization of hollow fiber membranes for passive air dehumidification in drying applications". Energy Conversion and Management. 302. Elsevier BV: 118097. doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2024.118097. ISSN 0196-8904.
- ^ Imsail, Ahmad; Khulbe, Kailash; Matsuura, Takeshi (April 28, 2015). Gas Separation Membranes: Polymeric and Inorganic. Springer. ISBN 9783319010953.
- ^ a b c Wang, Lawrence; Chen, Jiaping; Hung, Yung-Tse; Shammas, Nazih (December 1, 2010). Membrane and Desalination Technologies. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 9781597452786.
- ^ Feng, C.Y.; Khulbe, K.C.; Matsuura, T.; Ismail, A.F. (June 2013). "Recent progresses in polymeric hollow fiber membrane preparation, characterization and applications". Separation and Purification Technology. 111: 43–71. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2013.03.017.
- ^ Bashaw, J.D.; Lawson, J.K.; Orofino, T.A. (1972). Hollow Fiber Technology for Advanced Waste Treatment. Research reporting series: Environmental protection technology. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 2. Retrieved July 19, 2024.
- ^ A.B. Abell, K.L. Willis and D.A. Lange, "Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry and Image Analysis of Cement-Based Materials", Journal of Colloid and Interface Science, 211, pp. 39-44 (1999).
- ^ Krantz, William B.; Greenberg, Alan R.; Kujundzic, Elmira; Yeo, Adrian; Hosseini, Seyed S. (July 2013). "Evapoporometry: A novel technique for determining the pore-size distribution of membranes". Journal of Membrane Science. 438: 153–166. doi:10.1016/j.memsci.2013.03.045.
- ^ Merriman, Lauren; Moix, Alex; Beitle, Robert; Hestekin, Jamie (October 2014). "Carbon dioxide gas delivery to thin-film aqueous systems via hollow fiber membranes". Chemical Engineering Journal. 253: 165–173. Bibcode:2014ChEnJ.253..165M. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2014.04.075.
- ^ MBR-The reliable solution for difficult to treat Wastewaters (PDF). OWEA NE Industrial Waste Seminar. February 20, 2014.
- ^ Nakatsuka, Shuji; Nakate, Ichiro; Miyano, Tadaaki (August 1, 1996). "Drinking water treatment by using ultrafiltration hollow fiber membranes". Desalination. 106 (1): 55–61. Bibcode:1996Desal.106...55N. doi:10.1016/S0011-9164(96)00092-6. ISSN 0011-9164.
- ^ Sheu, Jonathan; Beltzer, Jim; Fury, Brian; Wilczek, Katarzyna; Tobin, Steve; Falconer, Danny; Nolta, Jan; Bauer, Gerhard (January 1, 2015). "Large-scale production of lentiviral vector in a closed system hollow fiber bioreactor". Molecular Therapy: Methods & Clinical Development. 2: 15020–. doi:10.1038/mtm.2015.20. ISSN 2329-0501. PMC 4470365. PMID 26151065.
- ^ Decker, S.; Hollingshead, M.; Bonomi, C.A.; Carter, J.P.; Sausville, E.A. (April 2004). "The hollow fibre model in cancer drug screening". European Journal of Cancer. 40 (6): 821–826. doi:10.1016/j.ejca.2003.11.029. ISSN 0959-8049.