Je–Tupi–Carib (or TuKaJê[1]) is a proposed language family composed of the Macro-Je (or Macro-Gê), Tupian and Cariban languages of South America. Aryon Rodrigues (2000) based this proposal on shared morphological patterns.[2][3] In an earlier proposal, Rodrigues (1985) had also proposed a Tupí-Cariban language family.[4]
| Je–Tupi–Carib | |
|---|---|
| (proposed) | |
| Geographic distribution | eastern South America, Caribbean |
| Linguistic classification | Proposed language family |
| Subdivisions | |
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | None |
 | |
The Je-Tupi-Carib proposal replaces earlier long-range hypotheses, e.g. Greenberg's phyla "Jê-Pano-Carib" (linking Macro-Je and Cariban to Panoan) and "Tupi-Arawak" (linking Tupian to Arawakan),[5] or Mason's "Macro-Tupí-Guaranían" family (1950: 236–238) which groups Tupian together with Bora–Witoto and Zaparoan.[6]
However, in some cases, similarities among the language families are clearly due to more recent linguistic diffusion, as with Tupian and Jê languages (Timbira; Guajajara, Tembe, Guaja, Urubu-Ka'apor, etc.) in the lower Tocantins-Mearim area.[7] Linguistic diffusion among Jê, Tupian, Cariban, Arawakan, and Trumai languages is also evident among the languages of the Xingu Indigenous Park.[8]
Comparison
editNikulin (2015)
editComparison of Proto-Macro-Jê (with W = Proto-Western Macro-Jê; E = Proto-Eastern Macro-Jê), Proto-Tupí, and Proto-Karib from Nikulin (2015):[9]: 91–96
| Gloss | Proto-Macro-Jê | Proto-Tupí | Proto-Karib |
|---|---|---|---|
| ‘we’ | *ka (W) | *oɾʸe / *oɾʸo= (excl.),*Vy= (?) (incl.) | *apina (excl.), *kɨwɨ-ɾə (incl.) |
| ‘two’ | *ɾey | not reconstructible | *atyəkə |
| ‘I’ | *iK=, *ba= (?) | *õn / *o= | *əwɨ-ɾə |
| ‘eye’ | *ⁿdʌm | *=eča | *=ənu |
| ‘you’ | *aC=, *ka= | *ẽn / *e= | *əmə-ɾə |
| ‘fire’ | *ʆɯm | *=atʸa | *wapoto (?) |
| ‘tongue’ | *ʆɔ̃ỹᵊtʌy / *ɲɔ̃ỹᵊtʌy | *kʸũ | *nuɾu |
| ‘stone’ | *kɾaT ~ *kɾaK | *wita | *təpu |
| ‘name’ | *(ʆi=)yit | *=et | *=ətetɨ |
| ‘hand’ | *ⁿbo | *po / *ⁿpo | *=əmiya |
| ‘to die’ | *tɯC | *pap | *ɾəməpə |
| ‘to drink’ | *ʆop / *yop | *kʼu ‘to eat, to drink’ | *ənɨɾɨ |
| ‘louse’ | *ⁿgot (E), *tit (W) (?) | *ⁿkɨp | *(w)ayamə |
| ‘moon’ | *Pãɲɔ̃t (E) | *wačɨ | *nunnə |
| ‘nail’ | *pṼ=ʆay | *po=ape / *ⁿpo=ape | *=amoti |
| ‘blood’ | *ʆVⁿbV / *yVⁿbV (W) | *=Vʔɨ | *munu (*mɨnu?) |
| ‘one’ | *piyit (E) | not reconstructible | *əwinə |
| ‘tooth’ | *ʆɔy / *yɔy | *=ãỹ | *=ə |
| ‘new’ | *tʌbⁿ | not reconstructible | not reconstructible |
| ‘dry’ | *tVgⁿ | *ⁿkãŋ (Proto-TG-Awetí-Mawé) | *umɨna (?) |
| ‘liver’ | *ⁿbaT ~ *ⁿbaK | *pɨʔa | *=əɾe |
| ‘to eat’ | *ku(C) | *kʼu ‘to eat, to drink’ | *ətəku |
| ‘tail’ | *ⁿbɯn | *=uway | *=kɨ (N) |
| ‘this’ | *toC | not reconstructible | *tə |
| ‘hair’ | *ʆi(C) (W) | *=ap | *(=e)tipotɨ |
| ‘water’ | *ⁿbiVk (W) (*koy ‘river’ (E)) | *kʼɨ | *tuna |
| ‘nose’ | *ʆĩya(C) / *ɲĩya(C) | *ãpɨy | *=əwna |
| ‘not’ | *tɔ̃T ~ *tɔ̃K | *=ãm (suffix) | *=ɾa, *=pɨɾa |
| ‘mouth’ | *ʆaɾᵊ(-kɔy) / *yaɾᵊ(-kɔy) | *=ẽn | *mɨta |
| ‘ear’ | *ʆĩp=pV(C) / *ɲĩp=pV(C) (W) | *apɨ | *pana |
| ‘that’ | *nã (W) (?) | not reconstructible | *mə |
| ‘bird’ | *pɾɤy(ᵊ) (E) (?),*ⁿbVkɾa(C) (W) | not reconstructible | *toɾono |
| ‘bone’ | *ʆik / *yik | *kãŋ | *ye |
| ‘sun’ | *Pãɲɔ̃t (E), *kɾV(M)PV(W) | *ⁿkʷat | *titi |
| ‘tree’ | *kop | *kʼɨp | *yeye |
| ‘ashes’ | *ⁿbɾʌk | not reconstructible | *əɾuno |
| ‘to give’ | *ʆɔ̃p / *ɲɔ̃p | *=ũm | *utu |
| ‘rain’ | *ⁿdVy | *(ã)mãn | *konopo |
| ‘fish’ | *mĩKnũ (W) | *ɨp, *potʸ, *poɾʸɨp | *woto, *kana |
| ‘neck’ | *ʆok- / *yok- | *wut | *pɨmɨ (N) |
| ‘breast’ | *kɤp ~ *kɛp (E) (?) | *ⁿkãm | *manatɨ |
| ‘leaf’ | *ʆoyᵊ (E), *ʆaɾɔ(C) (W) | *=epʷ | *yaɾe |
| ‘to come’ | *tɛ(C) (sg), *mɔ̃ŋ (pl) | *wut (cf. also *acʼem ‘to arrive’) | *ətepɨ |
| ‘to kill’ | *paT ~ *paK | *aku (?) | *wə |
| ‘foot’ | *paɾᵊ | *pɨ / *ⁿpɨ | *pupu |
| ‘to sit’ | *ɲɯ̃ p | *in | not reconstructible |
| ‘root’ | *ʆaɾet / *yaɾet | *=apo (TG, Mundurukú) | *mitɨ |
| ‘horn’ | *kop | not reconstructible | *ɾe(me)tɨ (N) |
| ‘to fly’ | *pɔ, *ʆɔ (W) | not reconstructible | not reconstructible |
| ‘to hear’ | *ⁿbak | *=eⁿtup | *əta |
| ‘skin,bark’ | *kɤ | *pe | *pi |
| ‘long’ | *ɾɯy | *peɾeC (?) | *mɨa |
| ‘meat’ | *ɲĩt | *ẽt | *punu |
| ‘road’ | *pɾɯt | *pe / *ape | *ətema |
| ‘to know’ | *ⁿbak | not reconstructible | *pu |
| ‘egg’ | *ⁿgɾɛ(C) | *=upiʔa | *pumo |
| ‘seed’ | *ʆɯm | not reconstructible | *epɨ (N) |
| ‘knee’ | *ʆVkɾã(ỹ) / *yVkɾã(ỹ) | *=pɨ̃ʔã (?) | *=ətyə=kumu (cf. Arara =pia=gumi / =pya=gumi) |
| ‘head’ | *kɾãỹ | *ʔa | *pu (N) |
| ‘to sleep’ | *ʆɔ̃tᵊ / *ɲɔ̃tᵊ | *kʸet | *wənɨkɨ |
| ‘to burn’ | *pokᵊ | *pɨkʼ | *iatu |
| ‘to bite’ | *pɾop ~ *pɾʌp | *čukʼu | *əte(ka) |
| ‘fat’ | *tɔbⁿ | *kʸap | *katɨ |
| ‘man’ | *ⁿbɯn | *aɨče | *wəkɨɾɨ (N) |
| ‘all’ | *=pV (?) | not reconstructible, cf. PTG *=pap ‘completive’ | not reconstructible |
| ‘snake’ | *kaŋã | *ⁿboy | *əkəyu |
| ‘to see’ | *ⁿbVp (?) | *cup | *əne |
| ‘heavy’ | *kuʆɯ(C) | *pocɨy | *əwoti- |
| ‘to go’ | *tɛ(C) (sg), *mɔ̃ŋ (pl) | *co | *tə |
| ‘cold’ | *yiyi(C) (W) | *cik ~ *čik | *komiti |
| ‘cloud’ | *ⁿgVkᵊ (E) (?), *ⁿbVV (W) | not reconstructible | not reconstructible |
| ‘far’ | *ɾɯy | not reconstructible | *mɨa (N), *paki (S) |
| ‘good’ | *ⁿbɛȶᵊ (E) | not reconstructible | *kuɾe |
| ‘mountain’ | *kɾãỹ | *cuʔa ~ *čuʔa | *(w)ɨpɨ |
| ‘wind’ | *kokᵊ | *ɨpʷɨtu | *apitetune |
| ‘belly’ | *tikᵊ (E) | *=ɨʔe ~ *=eʔo (?) | *waku (N) |
Nikulin (2019)
editJê-Tupí-Cariban basic vocabulary listed by Nikulin (2019):[10]
- ‘to go’: p-Tupian *to, p-Bororo *tu, p-Cariban *[wɨ]tə[mə]
- ‘arm’: p-Mundurukú *paʔ, p-Macro-Jê *paC, Chiquitano pa-, p-Kariri *bo(ro-), p-Cariban *apə-rɨ
- ‘foot’: p-Tupian *py, p-Macro-Jê *pVrV, p-Bororo *bure, Kariri *bɨ(ri-), (?) Chiquitano pope-, (?) p-Cariban *pupu-ru
- ‘seed’: p-Tuparí-Karitiana *j-upa, p-Cariban *əpɨ (*-tɨpə)
- ‘stone’: p-Macro-Jê *kra(C), p-Kariri *kro
- ‘tree’: p-Bororo *i, p-Kariri *dzi
- ‘to sleep’: p-Jabutí *nũtã, Chiquitano a-nu, p-Bororo *unutu / *-nutu, p-Kariri *-unu, (?) p-Macro-Jê *ũtᵊ
Nikulin (2023)
editNikulin (2023) identifies the following cognates in Macro-Jê and Tupian as further evidence for a Macro-Jê–Tupian family.[11]
| Gloss | Proto-Macro-Jê | Proto-Tupian |
|---|---|---|
| 3rd person non-coreferential prefix | *i- / *c- | *i- / *c- |
| ‘meat, flesh’ | *ĩt / *-ñĩt | *ẽT / *-jẽT |
| ‘to stand’ | *ja (nonfinite *-ja-m) | *-ja or *-ʔãP |
| ‘name’ | *-jet | *-jeT |
| ‘father’ | *-jo₂m | *-joP |
| ‘pus’ | *-jo₂w° | *-joP ‘fish roe, pus’ |
| ‘tooth’ | *-juñ° | *-jãC |
| ‘to ingest’ (‘to eat/drink’) | *-ko₂ | *-ꝁo |
| ‘tree, tree-like object (leg, horn, bone)’ | *(-)ky₁m° | *(-)ꝁɯP |
| ‘liver’ | *-mbâ | *-pɨ(-)ʔa / *mbɨ(-)ʔa |
| ‘smoke’ | *-ñĩjə̂k | *-jĩːK |
| ‘feces’ | *-ñV˜ t° | *-jV˜ T |
| ‘earth’ | *ŋgyN° | *ꝁɯC |
| ‘arm’ | *-pa ‘arm, branch’ | *-pə / *mbə ‘hand, vine-like’, *-pə-ʔa / *mbə-ʔa ‘arm’ |
| ‘foot’ | *-pâr° | *-pɨ / *mbɨ |
| ‘to burn, to set on fire’ | *(-)py₁k° ~ *(-)py₁ŋ° | *-pɯK |
| 3rd person coreferential prefix | *ta- | *tə- |
| ‘to give’ | *-ũp | *-õP |
| ‘to go up, to rise’ | *-we(C) | *-we(ː)P |
| Gloss | Proto-Macro-Jê | Tupian |
|---|---|---|
| ‘hole’ | *-kuñ° | Proto-Mundurukuan *-kã̰j |
| ‘ripe’ | *-ndêp° | Tuparí -tep |
| ‘to kill’ | *-wĩ | Karo -wĩ |
| Gloss | Proto-Tupian | Macro-Jê |
|---|---|---|
| ‘bitter’ | *-ðəP | Proto-Cerrado *-ndap ‘sour, bitter’ |
| ‘to do, to say, to be like this’ | *-ꝁe | Proto-Southern Jê *kê / *ke |
| ‘white’ | *-ǩɨT | Proto-Cerrado *-kaː |
| ‘husband’ | *-mẽT | Proto-Macro-Jê *-mbi₂n (Eastern) |
| ‘I’ | *o- | Proto-Cerrado *wa |
| ‘to wake up’ | *-paK | Proto-Jabutian *-pa |
| ‘heavy’ | *-pətɨC | Maxakalí -ptux |
| ‘to go’, ‘to come’ | *-tẽP ‘to exit’, *-ʔatẽP ‘to arrive’ | Proto-Macro-Jê *tẽ (nonfinite *-tẽ-m or *-tẽ-n) ‘to go, to come’ (Eastern) |
| ‘to arrive’ | *-wɯC ‘to go out, to arrive’ | Proto-Cerrado *wôc, nonfinite *-wôc |
| Gloss | Macro-Jê | Tupian |
|---|---|---|
| ‘bat’ | Proto-Goyaz *nĵêp | Proto-Tupian *jɯP (Kepkiriwat and Mondé) |
| ‘to dig’ | Proto-Macro-Jê *-kut (Eastern only) | Proto-Mundurukuan *-ɟ e-kot |
| ‘to enter’ | Proto-Jê *ŋgê₂ (plural only) | Proto-Tupian *-ke ~ *-ǩe (Eastern) |
| ‘to pierce’ | Proto-Cerrado *-pôk (sg.), *-japôk (pl.) | Proto-Tupi–Guaranian *-puK |
| ‘son’ | Proto-Chiquitano *´-tsay | Proto-Tuparian *-jaʔɨP or Proto-Mawé–Guaranian *-caʔɨT |
| ‘sour’ | Proto-Jê *-jôK ‘sour, salty’ | Karitiana -syk |
| ‘sweet’ | Proto-Macro-Jê *-jə̂ñ (Eastern) | Tuparí -hoy |
Non-cognate lookalikes or loans are identified by Nikulin (2023) as:
- ‘flat’: Proto-Mawé–Guaranian *-peːP and Ofayé -ɸiʔ
- ‘to kill’: Ofayé -kə˜jʔ, Proto-Chiquitano *kõˀõj- ‘to kill, to die’, and Awetí -kỹj
- ‘liquid’: Proto-Tupian *ʔɯ / *-j-ɯ and Proto-Jabutian *-y
- ‘louse’: Proto-Macro-Jê *-ŋgy₁n° (Eastern only) and Proto-Core Mondé *giT
- ‘neck’: Proto-Tupian *-woT and Proto-Cerrado *-mbut
- ‘powder, paste’: Proto-Tupian *-jõʔõP and Proto-Jabutian *-nũ
- ‘thorn’: Proto-Macro-Jê *-ñĩn° ~ *-ñĩñ° and Tuparí -ĩ
Macro-Chaco hypothesis
editNikulin (2019) suggests a Macro-Chaco hypothesis linking Jê-Tupí-Cariban (including Karirian and Bororoan) with Mataco-Guaicuruan (possibly including Zamucoan):[10]
- Macro-Chaco
- Macro-Guaicurú
- Jê-Tupí-Cariban
In addition to likely shared morphology, there are also various possible Macro-Chaco shared basic vocabulary items, listed below.[10]
- ‘tooth’: p-Tupian *j-ãc, p-Tupian *j-uñ, p-Bororo *o, Chiquitano oʔo-, p-Cariban *jə, p-Kariri *dza, p-Guaicurú *-owe
- ‘liquid’: p-Tupian *j-ɯ, Chiquitano uʔu- ‘honey’, p-Matacoan *-ʔi
- ‘name’: p-Tupian *j-et, p-Tupian *-jet, p-Bororo *idʒe, Kariri *dze, p-Matacoan *-ej, p-Zamocoan *i, (?) Chiquitano ɨri-
- ‘blood’: p-Tupian *əɯ, p-Tupian *j-O, p-Matacoan *’woj-, p-Guaicurú *-awot, Ayoreo ijo
- ‘seed’: pre-pMundurukú *j-a, p-Tupian *j-əm, p-Bororo *a, Chiquitano ijo-, p-Chiquitano *a, p-Matacoan *-oʔ, p-Guaicurú -a ‘fruit’
Reconstructed pronominal affixes of the protolanguages of the Macro-Chaco families are given in the following table:[citation needed]
| GLOSS | Macro- Tupí |
Macro- Gê |
Proto- Carib |
Mataco- Guaicurú |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st singular |
wi-, o-, ɨ- *a-, *sʲe- [TG] |
*ʔi-, yo- | *ɨwɨ (ind.) *ʧi- (A) |
*y- |
| 2nd singular |
*e- (A) *né- [TG](O) |
*ʔa-, gʷa- | *m(ɨ)- (A) *a(y)- (O) |
*a- |
| 3rd singular |
*o- [TG](A) *i-, *ts- [TG](O) |
*i-, ɛ- | *kiʧɨ- (A) *k(i)- (O) |
*i- |
| 1st plural |
*ku- | *qo- | ||
| 2nd plural |
*pe(ye)- | *ka- | *qa- | |
| 3rd plural |
In this table the forms marked with (A) refer to ergative/agentive case, and the forms marked with (O) are referred to absolutive/patient/experiencer case.
References
edit
Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at Appendix:Proto-Macro-Jê reconstructions
Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at Appendix:Proto-Tupian reconstructions
Wiktionary has a list of reconstructed forms at Appendix:Proto-Cariban reconstructions
- ^ Michael, Lev (2021). "The Classification of South American Languages". Annual Review of Linguistics. 7 (1): 329–349. doi:10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011619-030419. ISSN 2333-9683. S2CID 228877184.
- ^ Rodrigues A. D., 2000, "‘Ge–Pano–Carib’ X ‘Jê–Tupí–Karib’: sobre relaciones lingüísticas prehistóricas en Sudamérica", in L. Miranda (ed.), Actas del I Congreso de Lenguas Indígenas de Sudamérica, Tome I, Lima, Universidad Ricardo Palma, Facultad de lenguas modernas, p. 95–104.
- ^ Rodrigues, Aryon D. (2009). "A case of affinity among Tupí, Karíb, and Macro-Jê". Revista Brasileira de Linguística Antropológica. 1: 137–162. doi:10.26512/rbla.v1i1.12289.
- ^ Rodrigues, Aryon. 1985. Evidence for Tupi-Carib relationships. In South American Indian Languages: Retrospect and Prospect, ed. HE Manelis Klein, LR Stark, pp. 371–404. Austin: University of Texas Press.
- ^ Urban, Greg; Sherzer, Joel (1988). "The Linguistic Anthropology of Native South America". Annual Review of Anthropology. 17: 283–307. doi:10.1146/annurev.an.17.100188.001435. JSTOR 2155915.
- ^ Mason, J. Alden. 1950. The languages of South America. In: Julian Steward (ed.), Handbook of South American Indians, Volume 6, 157–317. (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 143.) Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.
- ^ Cabral, Ana Suelly Arruda Câmara; Beatriz Carreta Corrêa da Silva; Maria Risolta Silva Julião; Marina Maria Silva Magalhães. 2007. Linguistic diffusion in the Tocantins-Mearim area. In: Ana Suelly Arruda Câmara Cabral; Aryon Dall’Igna Rodrigues (ed.), Línguas e culturas Tupi, p. 357–374. Campinas: Curt Nimuendaju; Brasília: LALI.
- ^ Seki, Lucy. 2011. Alto Xingu: uma área linguística? In: Franchetto, Bruna (ed.), Alto Xingu: uma sociedade multilíngue, p. 57-85. Rio de Janeiro: Museu do Índio/FUNAI. (in Portuguese)
- ^ Nikulin, Andrey. 2015. On the genetic unity of Jê-Tupí-Karib (Верификация гипотезы о же-тупи-карибском генетическом единстве). Diploma thesis, Lomonosov Moscow State University.
- ^ a b c Nikulin, Andrey V. 2019. The classification of the languages of the South American Lowlands: State-of-the-art and challenges / Классификация языков востока Южной Америки. Illič-Svityč (Nostratic) Seminar / Ностратический семинар, Higher School of Economics, October 17, 2019.
- ^ Nikulin, Andrey. "Lexical evidence for the Macro-Jê–Tupian hypothesis" (PDF). Journal of Language Relationship. 21 (1): 3–56.