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Kashubian grammar

The grammar of the Kashubian language is characterized by a high degree of inflection, and has relatively free word order, although the dominant arrangement is subject–verb–object (SVO). There are no articles. Distinctive features include the different treatment of masculine personal nouns in the plural, and the complex grammar of numerals and quantifiers.

Morphology

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Kashubian has a rich system of inflectional morphology, akin to that of other Slavic languages, including case, number, gender, tense, aspect, and mood.

Nouns

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Kashubian displays seven cases inherited from Proto-Slavic.[1][2] They are nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, instrumental, locative, and vocative case, but the vocative is very often replaced by the nominative.[1]

Gender is usually reflected by the ending of a given noun stem.[1] Nouns ending in a soft consonant, -a, and -ô are feminine.[1] Masculine nouns end in a consonant and sometimes -a.

Some nouns are both masculine and feminine depending on the gender of the referent, e.g., kaléka (crippled person).[1]

Kashubian has a singular and a plural number, with traces of an old dual remaining in some plurals (rãce, oczë, plecë, uszë), the instrumental plural ending -ama, and the now-plural pronoun wa, with the old plural becoming a polite pronoun.[1]

The ending -ama is preferred standardly, and -ami appears dialectally.

Masculine nouns

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Masculine personal[3][4]
Singular Plural
Nominative (nazéwôcz ) chłop∅, pòeta chłopi/chłopë, pòecë
Genitive (rodzôcz) chłopa, pòetë chłopów, pòetów
Dative (dôwôcz) chłopù, pòece chłopóm, pòetóm
Accusative (winowôcz) chłopa, pòetã chłopów, pòecë
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) chłopã, pòetą chłopama/chłopami, pòetama, pòetami
Locative (môlnik) chłopie, pòece chłopach, pòetach
Vocative (wòłiwôcz) chłopie, pòeto chłopi/chłopë, pòecë
Masculine animal[3][5]
Singular Plural
Hard Soft Hard Soft
Nominative (nazéwôcz ) lës∅ kóń∅ lësë kònie
Genitive (rodzôcz) lësa kònia lësów kònii/kòniów
Dative (dôwôcz) lësowi kòniowi/kòniewi/kòniu lësom kòniom
Accusative (winowôcz) lësa kònia lëse kònie
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) lësã kòniã/kòniem lësama/lësami kòniama/kòniami
Locative (môlnik) lësu kòniu lësach kòniach
Vocative (wòłiwôcz) lësu kòniu lëse kònie
Masculine inanimate[3][5]
Singular Plural
Hard Soft Hard Soft
Nominative (nazéwôcz ) brzég∅ kosz∅ brzedżi kosze
Genitive (rodzôcz) brzega/brzegù kosza brzegów koszi/koszów
Dative (dôwôcz) brzegòwi koszowi brzegóm koszóm
Accusative (winowôcz) brzég∅ kosz∅ brzedżi kosze
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) brzegã koszã/koszem brzegama/brzegami koszama/koszami
Locative (môlnik) brzegù koszu brzegach koszach
Vocative (wòłiwôcz) brzegù koszu brzedżi kosze

Comments about the singular:

  • Masculine nouns that end in a voiced consonant show regular vowel alternations of: ô:a, ó:o, é:e, ą:ã, i/u:ë. Mobile e (e:∅) also appears in some stems.[6]
  • Like in Polish, there is irregularity with genitive singular -u/-a, where animal/personal nouns always get -a, but inanimate nouns may get both. In northern dialects, -u may be replaced with -ë.[6][7]
  • Dative singular shows two endings, -ewi (for soft nouns)/-owi (for hard nouns) and -u. It has been suggested (BY LORENTZ gram 872) that personal/animal nouns have a preference for -ewi/-owi. Rarely an ending -owiu has been used by combining both endings (compare Masurian -oziu). An ending -ë (from a short /u/) exists in North-East Kashubia. Finally, the adjectival ending -omù (hard)/-emù (soft) is also used in the North-East.[6][8]
  • The instrumental singular ending -ã is used in the North-West for stylistic reasons or for rhymes.[9]
  • The locative singular ending -(i)e is for hard stems and -(i)u is for soft stems or nouns whose stems end with -k/-g/-ch, as well as -s/-z. An ending -ë (from a short /u/) exists in North-East Kashubia.[9]
  • Masculine nouns ending in -a decline femininely in the singular and masculinely in the plural.[7]

Comments about the plural:

  • The nominative plural has multiple endings, including -owie, -ë, -e, -i.[9][8]
  • The dative plural ending -ama may occasionally be seen.
  • The instrumental plural endings -mi (without -a-') and -i are rare.[9]
  • The locative plural ending -ech can be seen in some names of countries, but is falling out of use and being replaced by -ach.[10]

Feminine nouns

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Hard -a declension[10][11]
Singular Plural
Nominative (nazéwôcz ) gãba, noga gãbë, nodżi
Genitive (rodzôcz) gãbë, nodżi gãbów, nogów/nóg∅
Dative (dôwôcz) gãbie, nodze gãbóm, nogóm
Accusative (winowôcz) gãbã, nogã gãbë, nodżi
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) gãbą, nogą gãbama/gãbami, nogama/nogami
Locative (môlnik) gãbie, nodze gãbach, nogach
Vocative (wòłiwôcz) gãbò, nogò gãbë, nodżi
Soft -a declension[10][11]
Singular Plural
Nominative (nazéwôcz ) zemia, òwca zemie, òwce
Genitive (rodzôcz) zemi/zemie, òwcë zemi/zemiów, owiec∅/òwców
Dative (dôwôcz) zemi, òwcë zemióm, òwcóm
Accusative (winowôcz) zemiã, òwcã zemie, òwce
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) zemią, òwcą zemiama/zemiami, òwcama/òwcami
Locative (môlnik) zemi, òwcë zemiach, òwcach
Vocative (wòłiwôcz) zemia/zemio, òwco zemie, òwce

Comments:

  • Northern Kashubian dialects sometimes have -i in the locative singular for nouns ending in -ła, so szkòli instead of szkòle.[10]
Soft -ô declension[12][11]
Singular Plural
Nominative (nazéwôcz ) rolô, stëdniô role/rolé, stëdnie/stëdnié
Genitive (rodzôcz) rolë/roli/rolé/role, stëdni/stëdnié/stëdnie roli/rolów, stëdni/stëdniów
Dative (dôwôcz) roli/rolë/rolé, stëdnié rolóm, stëdnióm
Accusative (winowôcz) rolã, stëdniã role/rolé, stëdnie/stëdnié
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) rolą, stëdnią rolama/rolami, stëdniama/stëdniami
Locative (môlnik) roli/rolë/rolé, stëdnié rolach, stëdniach
Vocative (wòłiwôcz) rolô, stëdniô role/rolé, stëdnie/stëdnié

Comments:

  • Northern dialects sometimes show syncretism in the accusative singular with the nominative singular, so rolô alongside rolã.[12]
  • The -∅ ending in the genitive plural is largely replaced with -ów except in common words.
Latinate feminine -(i/ë)jô (soft)[12]
Singular Plural
Nominative (nazéwôcz ) proces(ë)jô proces(ë)je
Genitive (rodzôcz) proces(ë)jé/proces(ë)ji proces(ë)jów/ procesyj∅
Dative (dôwôcz) proces(ë)ji proces(ë)jóm
Accusative (winowôcz) proces(ë)jã proces(ë)je
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) proces(ë)ją proces(ë)jama/proces(ë)jami
Locative (môlnik) proces(ë)ji proces(ë)jach
Vocative (wòłiwôcz) proces(ë)jô proces(ë)je
Feminine nouns ending in a consonant[11]
Singular Plural
Nominative (nazéwôcz ) chëcz∅, noc∅ chëcze, noce
Genitive (rodzôcz) chëczë, nocë chëczów, noców
Dative (dôwôcz) chëczë, nocë chëczóm, nocóm
Accusative (winowôcz) chëcz∅, noc∅ chëcze, noce
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) chëczą, nocą chëczama/chëczami, nocama/nocami
Locative (môlnik) chëczë, nocë chëczach, nocach
Vocative (wòłiwôcz) chëczë, nocë chëcze, noce

Neuter nouns

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Hard -o declension[13][14]
Singular Plural
Nominative (nazéwôcz ) pismò, biczëskò pisma, biczëska
Genitive (rodzôcz) pisma, biczëska pismów, biczësków
Dative (dôwôcz) pismu, biczëskù pismóm, biczëskóm
Accusative (winowôcz) pismò, biczëskò pisma, biczëska
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) pismã, biczëskã pismama/pismami, biczëskama/biczëskami
Locative (môlnik) pismie, biczëskù pismach, biczëskach
Vocative (wòłiwôcz) pismò, biczëskò gãba, biczëska
Soft -e declension[13][14]
Singular Plural
Nominative (nazéwôcz ) serce serca
Genitive (rodzôcz) serca serców
Dative (dôwôcz) sercu sercóm
Accusative (winowôcz) serce serca
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) sercã sercama/sercami
Locative (môlnik) sercu sercach
Vocative (wòłiwôcz) serce serca
Soft -é declension[13][14]
Singular Plural
Nominative (nazéwôcz ) kôzanié kôzania
Genitive (rodzôcz) kôzaniô/kôzaniégò/kôzania/kôzaniu/kôzanii kôzaniów
Dative (dôwôcz) kôzaniu/kôzaniémù/kôzaniowi kôzanióm
Accusative (winowôcz) kôzanié kôzania
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) kôzaniã kôzaniama/kôzaniami
Locative (môlnik) kôzaniu/kôzanim kôzaniach
Vocative (wòłiwôcz) kôzanié kôzania
Soft -ã declension with an -n- stem [15][14]
Singular Plural
Nominative (nazéwôcz ) semiã semiona
Genitive (rodzôcz) semienia semión∅/semionów
Dative (dôwôcz) semieniu/semieniowi semionóm
Accusative (winowôcz) semiã semiona
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) semieniã semionama/semionami
Locative (môlnik) semieniu semionach
Vocative (wòłiwôcz) semiã semiona
Soft -ã declension with a -t- stem[15][14]
Singular Plural
Nominative (nazéwôcz ) celã celãta
Genitive (rodzôcz) celãca celãt∅/celąt∅
Dative (dôwôcz) celãcu celãtóm
Accusative (winowôcz) celã celãta
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) celãcã celãtama/celãtami
Locative (môlnik) celãcu celãtach
Vocative (wòłiwôcz) celã celãta

Comments:

  • Nouns ending in -é (chiefly gerunds) take adjectival endings in northern and central dialects.[15]
  • Nouns ending in -ã with -n- stems occasionally have a hard -n- in the singular.[15]
  • A few neuter nouns show ∅ in the genitive plural, and if the given noun's stem ends with a voiced consonant, regular vowel alternation can be observed, e.g. niebò -> niéb. In some cases a mobile e is also inserted.[16]

Adjectives and adverbs

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Kashubian adjectives agree in number, gender, and case with nouns. The vocative is syncretic with the nominative.

Kashubian retains many short form adjectives, whose base form may be used for all genders, but may also change their ending to agree in gender. They may be used as a predicative or as a possessive adjective or through German borrowings.[17][18]

Short forms show regular vowel alternations.

The comparative degree is formed by adding -szi or sometimes -ejszi/-észi if the stem ends with two consonants, however -szy can also appear in the same conditions.[19][20]

The superlative degree is formed nô-.[19][21]

An analytic comparative may be formed with barżi and an analytic superlative with nôbarżi.

Hard declension[22][23] Singular Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative,
Vocative 		personal młodi młodô młodé młodi młodé
non-personal młodé
Genitive młodégò młodi młodégò młodëch/młodich
Dative młodémù młodi młodémù młodim
Accusative personal młodégò młodą młodé młodëch/młodich młodé
non-personal
animate 		młodé
inanimate młodi
Instrumental młodim młodą młodim młodima/młodëma/młodimi/młodëmi
Locative młodim młodi młodim młodëch/młodich
Soft declension[22][24] Singular Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative,
Vocative 		personal snôżi snôżô snôżé snôżi snôżé
non-personal snôżé
Genitive snôżégò snôżi snôżégò snôżich
Dative snôżémù snôżi snôżémù snôżim
Accusative personal snôżégò snôżą snôżé snôżich snôżé
non-personal
animate 		snôżé
inanimate snôżi
Instrumental snôżim snôżą snôżim snôżima/snôżimi
Locative snôżim snôżi snôżim snôżich
Possessive declension (-ów)[25][26] Singular Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative,
Vocative 		personal bratów∅ bratowa bratowò/bratowé bratowi bratowé
non-personal bratowé
Genitive bratowégò bratowi bratowégò bratowëch
Dative bratowémù bratowi bratowémù bratowim
Accusative personal bratowégò bratową bratowò/bratowé bratowëch bratowé
non-personal
animate 		bratowé
inanimate bratów∅
Instrumental bratowim bratową bratowim bratowima
Locative bratowim bratowi bratowim bratowëch
Possessive declension (-in)[25][27] Singular Plural
Masculine Feminine Neuter Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative,
Vocative 		personal Anin∅ Anina Anino/Aniné Aniny Aniné
non-personal Aniné
Genitive Aninégò Aniny Aninégò Aninëch
Dative Aninémù Aniny Aninémù Aninym
Accusative personal Aninégò Aniną Anino/Aniné Aninëch Aniné
non-personal
animate 		Aniné
inanimate Anin∅
Instrumental Aninym Aniną Aninym Aninyma
Locative Aninym Aniny Aninym Aninëch

Deadjectival adverbs can be formed with either -e or -o and occasionally with -∅ as in szerok.[28] The synthetic comparative is formed with -i, and the superlative with nô-, and the analytic comparative and superlative are formed the same way as the analytic comparative and superlatives of adjectives.[29]

Verbs

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Kashubian verbs agree for person, tense, aspect, and have participle forms as well as gerunds.

The formal pronoun Wë has special marking different from forms that agree with wa.[30]

Kashubian has 4 conjugation patterns.[30][31]

Class I

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Conjugation I (-ã, -esz)[31]
infinitive (wiezc) Singular Plural Polite
1st jô wiezã më wiezemë Wë wiezece
2nd të wiezesz wa wiezeta
3rd òn, òna, òno wieze òni, òne wiozą

Class II

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Conjugation II (-ã, -isz)[31]
infinitive (robic) Singular Plural Polite
1st jô robiã më robimë Wë robice
2nd të robisz wa robita
3rd òn, òna, òno robi òni, òne robią

Class III

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Conjugation III (-óm, -ôsz)[32]
infinitive (grac) Singular Plural Polite
1st jô gróm/jô grajã më grómë/më grajemë Wë grôce/Wë grajece
2nd të grôsz/të grajesz wa grôta/wa grajeta
3rd òn, òna, òno grô/òn, òna, òno graje òni, òne grają/ òni, òne grają

Class IV

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Conjugation IV (-ém, -ész)[32]
infinitive (wiedzec) Singular Plural Polite
1st jô wiém më wiémë Wë wiéce
2nd të wiész wa wiéta
3rd òn, òna, òno wié òni, òne wiedzą

bëc

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bëc
infinitive (bëc) Singular Plural Polite
1st jô jem më jesmë Wë jesce
2nd të jes wa jesta
3rd òn, òna, òno je òni, òne są

Non-Present forms

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The second person singular imperative is formed by using the bare verb stem (-∅), -ij(-ëj)/-i(-ë), or -ôj. The second person plural imperative is formed the same way and -ta is added. The first person plural imperative (the so-called hortative is formed the same way and -më is added.[33][34]

When perfective verbs are inclined according to present endings, a future tense is formed.[35] Imperfective verbs form the future using a future form of bëc and a past form or the infinitive.[35][36]

The past tense is formed in 3 different ways:

Archaically with a present tense form of bëc and a past form.[37][38]

The most common, modern way is to take a past tense form with a pronoun or noun. Regionally a combined form of że is added.[37][39]

A type of past perfect can be formed using a present tense form of miec and the past participle of the verb.[37][40]

Forms ending -ała can be shortened to -a.[41]

An obsolete pluperfect can formed using the appropriate past form of bëc, followed by the past form of the verb, or by using a past form of bëc or miec plus the passive participle.[42][43]

The subjunctive mood can be formed using bë and the past tense of the verb.[42][44]

The passive voice is formed with bëc and the passive participle.[42][44]

The infinitive ending is -c.[42]

The active adverbial participle formed with -ąc (more common -ącë) is uncommon in spoken Kashubian, appearing more in literature.[45][46]

The active adjectival participle is formed with -ący.[45][47]

The passive adjectival participle is formed with -ty, -ny, or -ony, and to some extent -łi.[45][48]

The anterior adverbial pariticple is formed with -łszë or -wszë from perfective verbs.[46]

Pronouns

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The possessive pronouns mój, twój, nasz, wasz, czij as well as the determiner pronouns ten, kòżdi, żôden, chtërny, sóm and the numeral jeden take adjectival declensions.[19][49] The possessive pronouns sometimes have contracted forms, such as mégò.[50]

The third person oblique forms such as jegò, ji/jé, jich/jejich have the alternative forms niegò, ni, nich when after a preposition.

Personal pronouns[51][52] Singular Plural
1st 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd Polite
masc. fem. neut. epic. fem.
Nominative/vocative (nazéwôcz/wòłiwôcz) jô të òn òna òno më wa òni/ni òne/ònë/në Wë
Genitive (rodzôcz) mie, mnie cebie/ce jegò/niegò/gò ji/jé/ni jegò nas/naju was/waju jich/jejich/nich jich/jejich/nich Was
Dative (dôwôcz) mie, mnie tobie/cë/cebie jemù/mù ji jemù/mù nóm/nama/nami wama jim/jima jim/jima Wóm/Wami
Accusative (winowôcz) mie, miã, mnie cebie/ce/cã jegò/jen/gò jã/niã je/nie nas/naju was/waju jich je Was
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) mną tobą nim nią nim nama wama nimi/jima/nima nimi/jima/nima Wama/Wami
Locative (môlnik) mie/mnie cebie/tobie nim ni nim nas/naju was/waju nich nich Was
Case
reflexive sã/sebie[53][54]
Nominative/vocative (nazéwôcz/wòłiwôcz) —
Genitive (rodzôcz) sebie/se/sã
Dative (dôwôcz) sobie/se/so
Accusative (winowôcz) sebie/sã/so
Instrumental (narzãdzôcz) sobą
Locative (môlnik) sebie/sobie

Numerals

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Kashubian has a complex system of numerals and related quantifiers, with special rules for their inflection, for the case of the governed noun, and for verb agreement with the resulting noun phrase. Kashubian uses the long scale.

Numerals[55][56]
Numeral Cardinal Ordinal
0. nul nulowi
1. jeden pierszi
2. dwa drëdżi
3. trzë trzecy
4. sztërë czwiôrti/czwôrti
5. piãc piąti
6. szesc szósti
7. sétmë/sedem sótmi/sódmi
8. òsmë/òsem ósmi
9. dzewiãc dzewiąti
10. dzesãc dzesąti
11. jednôsce jednôsti
12. dwanôsce dwanôsti
13. trzënôsce trzënôsti
14. sztërnôsce sztërnôsti
15. piãtnôsce piãtnôsti
16. szestnôsce szestnôsti
17. sétmënôsce/sedemnôsce sétmënôsti/sedemnôsti
18. òsmënôsce/òsemnôsce òsmënôsti/òsemnôsti
19. dzewiãtnôsce dzewiãtnôsti
20. dwadzesce dwadzesti
30. trzëdzescë trzëdzesti
40. sztërdzescë sztërdzesti
50. piãcdzesąt piãcdzesąti
60. szescdzesąt szescdzesąti
70. sétmëdzesąt/sedemdzesąt sétmëdzesąti/sedemdzesąti
80. òsmëdzesąt/òsemdzesąt òsmëdzesąti/òsemdzesąti
90. dzewiãcdzesąt dzewiãcdzesąti
100. sto setny
200. dwasta dwasetny
300. trzësta trzësetny
400. sztërësta sztërësetny
500. piãcset piãcsetny
600. szescset szescsetny
700. sétmëset/sedemset sétmësetny/sedemsetny
800. òsmëset/òsemset òsmësetny/òsemsetny
900. dzewiãcset dzewiãcsetny
1,000. tësąc1 tësączny
1,000,000. milión1 milionowi
1,000,000,000. miliard1 —
1,000,000,000,000. bilión1 —
1) Grammatically a noun.

Other parts of speech

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Some adverbs, pronouns, and all conjunctions, interjections, particles, and prepositions are indeclinable.[57][58]

Syntax

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Kashubian has a typical set of sentence types, including declarative, nominal, exclamatory, imperative, interrogatory, and compound sentences.[59][60]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d e f Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 111.
  2. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 60.
  3. ^ a b c Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 112.
  4. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 63–64.
  5. ^ a b Makùrôt 2016, pp. 63.
  6. ^ a b c Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 113.
  7. ^ a b Makùrôt 2016, pp. 64.
  8. ^ a b Makùrôt 2016, pp. 65.
  9. ^ a b c d Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 114.
  10. ^ a b c d Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 115.
  11. ^ a b c d Makùrôt 2016, pp. 66–67.
  12. ^ a b c Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 116.
  13. ^ a b c Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 117.
  14. ^ a b c d e Makùrôt 2016, pp. 69–71.
  15. ^ a b c d Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 118.
  16. ^ Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 119.
  17. ^ Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 119–120.
  18. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 72.
  19. ^ a b c Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 122.
  20. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 76–77.
  21. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 77.
  22. ^ a b Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 120.
  23. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 73–73.
  24. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 74–75.
  25. ^ a b Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 121.
  26. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 78.
  27. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 78–79.
  28. ^ Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 139.
  29. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 95–96.
  30. ^ a b Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 130.
  31. ^ a b c Makùrôt 2016, pp. 44.
  32. ^ a b Makùrôt 2016, pp. 45.
  33. ^ Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 131–132.
  34. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 53–54.
  35. ^ a b Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 132.
  36. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 50–53.
  37. ^ a b c Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 133.
  38. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 46.
  39. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 47.
  40. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 47–48.
  41. ^ Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 133–134.
  42. ^ a b c d Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 134.
  43. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 48.
  44. ^ a b Makùrôt 2016, pp. 55.
  45. ^ a b c Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 135.
  46. ^ a b Makùrôt 2016, pp. 58.
  47. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 57–58.
  48. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 57.
  49. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 85–87.
  50. ^ Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 123.
  51. ^ Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 123–125.
  52. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 81–82.
  53. ^ Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 126.
  54. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 83.
  55. ^ Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 126——129.
  56. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 89–93.
  57. ^ Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 139–140.
  58. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 98–103.
  59. ^ Breza & Treder 1981, pp. 142.
  60. ^ Makùrôt 2016, pp. 148.

Bibliography

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  • Breza, Edward; Treder, Jerzy (1981). Maria Kowalewska (ed.). Gramatyka kaszubska: zarys popularny (in Polish). Gdańsk: Zrzeszenie Kaszubsko-Pomorskie (Kaszëbskò-Pòmòrsczé Zrzeszenié). ISBN 83-00-00102-6.
  • Makùrôt, Hana (2016). Bożena Ugowska (ed.). Gramatika kaszëbsczégò jãzëka (PDF) (in Kashubian). Gdańsk: Zrzeszenie Kaszubsko-Pomorskie (Kaszëbskò-Pòmòrsczé Zrzeszenié). ISBN 978-83-62137-97-8.

Further reading

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