Khmu [kʰmuʔ] is the language of the Khmu people of the northern Laos region. It is also spoken in adjacent areas of Vietnam, Thailand and China. Khmu lends its name to the Khmuic branch of the Austroasiatic language family, the latter of which also includes Khmer and Vietnamese. Within Austroasiatic, Khmu is often cited as being most closely related to the Palaungic and Khasic languages.[5] The name "Khmu" can also be seen romanized as Kmhmu, Khmu', Kammu, or Khamuk in various publications or alternatively referred to by the name of a local dialect.
| Khmu | |
|---|---|
| Kmhmu ກຶມຫມຸ กำมุ | |
| Native to | Laos, Vietnam, Thailand, China |
| Ethnicity | Khmu |
Native speakers | (798,400 cited 1990–2015 census)[1][2] |
Austroasiatic
| |
| Lao, Latin, Thai | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | Either:kjg – Khmukhf – Buddhist Khmu (Kmhmu' Khwen)[3][4] |
| Glottolog | khmu1255 |
Dialects
edit
Khmu has several dialects but no standard variety. Dialects differ primarily in consonant inventory, existence of register, and the degree to which the language has been influenced by the surrounding national language(s). Dialects are, for the most part, mutually intelligible; however communication can be difficult between speakers of geographically distant dialects.
The dialects of Khmu can be broadly categorized into two groups, Western Khmu and Eastern Khmu.
- Western Khmu dialects have fewer consonant phonemes and instead use phonemic register contrast, as seen in other Austroasiatic languages, of "lax" breathy register and "tense" modal register. In at least one dialect of Western Khmu, known as Khmu Rook, tonogenesis is evident as the register contrast has developed into a system of two phonetic tones with six phonemic realizations.[6]
- Eastern Khmu dialects show the opposite tendency. Completely lacking either register or tone distinction, these dialects utilize a three-way distinction of stops (voiced, voiceless and aspirated voiceless) and nasals (voiced, voiceless, and pre-glottalized) in the syllable-initial position for phonemic contrast.[7]
Suwilai Premsrirat (2002)
editSuwilai Premsrirat (2002)[8] reports the following locations and dialects of Kmhmu' in Laos, Vietnam, China, and Thailand.
- Laos: spoken in the 8 northern provinces of Luang Namtha, Udomsai, Bokeo, Sayaburi, Phongsali, Luang Prabang, and Xiaq kvaaq, with a few villages near Vientiane. Dialects include Kmhmu' Rook, Khmu Lw, and Kmhmu' Cwaq (also known as Kmhmu' Uu).
- Vietnam: Kim Hua, Sop Pot, Sop Caw and Pung Kamong Villages, Kim Da Subdistrict, Tương Dương District, Vinh City, Nghệ An Province. Also in Lai Châu Province, Sơn La Province, and Thanh Hóa Province.
- China: Pung Soa village (more conservative with voicing contrasts in the initial consonants) and Om Kae village (has tonal contrasts) in Sipsongpanna, Yunnan
- Thailand: many villages, including the representative datapoint of Huai Ian village, Lai Ngao subdistrict, Wiang Kaen district, Chiang Rai province (originally from Pak Bang district of Laos, where the language is called Khmu Khrong, meaning 'Mekong Khmu'). Also in Nan province and Lampang province.
Phonology
editConsonants
editThe consonant inventory of Khmu' is shown in the table below. The phoneme /f/, present in dialects of both Eastern and Western Khmu', is a result of borrowings from the surrounding Tai languages.[9]
| Labial | Alveolar | Palatal | Velar | Glottal | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Plosive | Aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | cʰ | kʰ | |||||
| Voiceless | p | t | c | k | ʔ | |||||
| Voiced | b | d | ɟ1 | ɡ1 | ||||||
| Nasal | Voiceless1 | m̥ | n̥ | ɲ̥ | ŋ̥ | |||||
| Voiced | m | n | ɲ | ŋ | ||||||
| Preglottalized1 | ˀm | ˀn | ˀɲ | ˀŋ | ||||||
| Fricative | Voiceless | (f) | s | h | ||||||
| Approximant | Voiceless1 | w̥2 | l̥ | r̥ | j̊ | |||||
| Voiced | w | l | r | j | ||||||
| Preglottalized1 | ˀw | ˀj | ||||||||
- Only found in Eastern Khmu dialects.
- w̥ is a voiceless labio-velar approximant
Vowels
editThe vowels of the Khmu' language show little variation across the dialects with all varieties having 19 monophthongs and three diphthongs (/iə/, /ɨə/ and /uə/).[6]
| Front | Central | Back | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| short | long | short | long | short | long | |
| Close | i | iː | ɨ | ɨː | u | uː |
| Close-mid | e | eː | ə | əː | o | oː |
| Open-mid | ɛ | ɛː | ʌː | ɔ | ɔː | |
| Open | a | aː | ||||
Grammar
editPronouns
edit| Person | Singular | Dual | Plural |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | ໂອະ (òɂ) | ອະ (àɂ) | ອິ (ìɂ) |
| 2nd | ແຢະ (jɛ̀ɂ) (masculine), ປາ (pàː) (feminine) | ສວາ (swáː) | ປໍ (pɔ̀ː) |
| 3rd | ກັຽ (kəː) (masculine), ນາ (nàː) (feminine) | ສນາ (snáː) | ນໍ (nɔ̀ː) |
Syntax
editKhmu uses mainly an SVO word order although an OVS order is also possible.
Vocabulary
editNumeral
edit| Cardinal | /nɨŋ/ | /sɔ́ːŋ/ | /sáːm/ | /síː/ | /háː/ | /rók/ | /cét/ | /pɛ́t/ | /káw/ | /síp/ |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ນຶງ | ສອງ | ສາມ | ສີ | ຫາ | ຣົກ | ເຈຕັ | ແປດ | ເກົ້າ | ສິບ | |
| 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | |
| Ordinal | /mòːj/ | /pà:ː/ | /péʔ/ | /puːl/ | /pɨəŋ/ | /tɔːl/ | /tel/ | /taːm/ | /kaːj/ | /kal/ |
| ໂມຢ | ປາຣ | ເປະ | ປູລ | ເປືອງ | ຕອລ | ເຕລ | ຕາມ | ກາຍ | ກັລ | |
| 1st | 2nd | 3rd | 4th | 5th | 6th | 7th | 8th | 9th | 10th |
Comparison with Khmer
edit| English | Khmu | Khmer |
|---|---|---|
| dog | ເສາະ ([sɔ́ɂ]) | ឆ្កែ (chhkê) |
| child | ກອນ ([kɔ́ːn]) | កូន (kon) |
| mother | ມະ ([màɂ]) | ម៉ាក់ (măk) |
| flower | ຣາງ ([ràːŋ]) | ផ្កា (phka) |
| mountain | ມົກ ([mòk]) | ភ្នំ (phnum) |
| to see | ກເລະ ([klèɂ]) | ឃើញ (kheunh) |
| enemy | ສັຕູ ([sa tùː]) | សត្រូវ (sâtrov) |
| to disappear | ງັຕ ([ŋát]) | បាត់ (băt) |
| to shoot | ປິຍ ([píɲ]) | បាញ់ (bănh) |
| seven | ເຈຕັ ([cét]) | ប្រាំពីរ (brămpir) |
| penis | ລົກ ([lòk]) | លិង្គ (lĭngk) |
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ "Kmhmu'". Ethnologue. Retrieved 26 July 2018.
- ^ "Khuen". Ethnologue. Retrieved 26 July 2018.
- ^ Hammarström (2015) Ethnologue 16/17/18th editions: a comprehensive review: online appendices
- ^ "Mon-Khmer Classification (Draft)".
- ^ Diffloth, Gérard (2005). "The contribution of linguistic palaeontology and Austroasiatic". in Laurent Sagart, Roger Blench and Alicia Sanchez-Mazas, eds. The Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. 77–80. London: Routledge Curzon.
- ^ a b SUWILAI Premsrirat, author. 2001. "Tonogenesis in Khmu dialects of SEA." Mon-Khmer Studies 31: 47–56.
- ^ Suwilai, Premsrirat, et al. Mahidol University. Dictionary of Khmu in Laos.
- ^ Premsrirat, Suwilai. 2002. Dictionary of Khmu in Laos. Mon-Khmer Studies, Special Publication, Number 1, Volume 3. Salaya, Thailand: Mahidol University.
- ^ Suwilai, Prēmsīrat. The Thesaurus and Dictionary Series of Khmu Dialects in Southeast Asia. Nakorn Pathom: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University at Salaya, Thailand, 2002. ISBN 9740501125
Further reading
edit- Premsirat, Suwilai (1991). "Aspects Inter-Clausal Relations in Khmu". In Davidson, Jeremy H. C. S.; Shorto, H. L. (eds.). Austroasiatic Languages: Essays in Honour of H.L. Shorto. University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies. pp. 123–140. ISBN 0728601834. Retrieved 9 June 2014.
- Prēmsīrat, Suwilai. The Thesaurus and Dictionary Series of Khmu Dialects in Southeast Asia. Nakorn Pathom: Institute of Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University at Salaya, Thailand, 2002. ISBN 9740501125
- Prēmsīrat, Suwilai. Khmu, a Minority Language of Thailand. Papers in South-East Asian linguistics, no. 10. Canberra, A.C.T., Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University, 1987. ISBN 0-85883-365-4
- Proschan, Frank. Kmhmu' Language and Language Policy: At Home and Abroad. s.l: s.n, 1995.
- Proschan, Frank. Poetic Parallelism in Kmhmu Verbal Arts: From Texts to Performances. s.l: s.n, 1988.
- Smalley, William Allen. Outline of Khmu structure. American Oriental series. Essay, v.2. New Haven, Conn: American Oriental Society, 1961.
- Svantesson, Jan-Olof. Kammu Phonology and Morphology. Travaux de l'Institut de linguistique de Lund, 18. Lund: CWK Gleerup, 1983. ISBN 91-40-04870-5
External links
edit- http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)
- http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-66EA-B@view Khmu in RWAAI Digital Archive
- Database of audio recordings in Khmu – basic Catholic prayers