Wikipedia

Kuru (disease)

Not to be confused with Koro (disease).

Kuru is a rare, incurable, and fatal neurodegenerative disorder that was formerly common among the Fore people of Papua New Guinea. Kuru is a form of prion disease which leads to tremors and loss of coordination from neurodegeneration. The term kúru means “trembling” and comes from the Fore word kuria or guria ("to shake").[2][3] It is also known as the "laughing sickness" due to the pathologic bursts of laughter which are a symptom of the infection.

Kuru
A Fore child with advanced kuru. He is unable to walk or sit upright without assistance and is severely malnourished.
Pronunciation
  • IPA: kuru
SpecialtyNeuropathology, infectious disease
SymptomsBody tremors, random outbursts of laughter, emotional degradation, gradual loss of coordination
ComplicationsInfection and pneumonia during the terminal stage.
Usual onsetApproximately 10-50 years after initial exposure.
Duration11–14 month life expectancy after onset of symptoms[1]
CausesTransmission of infected prion proteins
Risk factorsCannibalism
Diagnostic methodAutopsy
Differential diagnosisCreutzfeldt–Jakob disease
PreventionAvoiding practices of cannibalism
TreatmentSupportive care
PrognosisFatal
FrequencyRare
DeathsApproximately 2,700 as of 2005

It is now widely accepted that kuru was transmitted among the Fore people via funerary cannibalism. Deceased family members were traditionally cooked and eaten, which was thought to help free the spirit of the dead.[4] Women and children usually consumed the brain, the organ in which infectious prions were most concentrated, thus allowing for transmission of kuru. The disease was therefore more prevalent among women and children.

The epidemic likely started when a villager developed sporadic Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease and died. When villagers ate the brain, they contracted the disease and then spread it to other villagers who ate their infected brains.[5]

While the Fore people stopped consuming human meat in the early 1960s, when it was first speculated to be transmitted via endocannibalism, the disease lingered due to kuru's long incubation period of anywhere from 10 to over 50 years.[6] The epidemic finally declined sharply after half a century, from 200 deaths per year in 1957 to no deaths from at least 2010 onwards, but sources disagree on whether the last known kuru victim died in 2005 or 2009.[7][8][9][10]

Signs and symptoms

edit

Kuru, a transmissible spongiform encephalopathy, is a disease of the nervous system that causes physiological and neurological effects which ultimately lead to death. It is characterized by progressive cerebellar ataxia, or loss of coordination and control over muscle movements.[11][12]

The preclinical or asymptomatic phase, also called the incubation period, averages 10–13 years, but can be as short as five and has been estimated to last as long as 50 years or more after initial exposure.[13]

The clinical stage, which begins at the first onset of symptoms, lasts an average of 12 months. The clinical progression of kuru is divided into three specific stages: the ambulant, sedentary and terminal stages. While there is some variation in these stages from individual to individual, they are highly conserved among the affected population.[11] Before the onset of clinical symptoms, an individual can also present with prodromal symptoms including headache and joint pain in the legs.[14]

Ambulant stage

edit

In the ambulant stage, the infected individual may exhibit unsteady stance and gait, decreased muscle control, difficulty pronouncing words (dysarthria), and tremors (titubation). This stage is named the ambulant because the individual is still able to walk around despite symptoms.[14]

Sedentary stage

edit

In the sedentary stage, the infected individual is incapable of walking without support and experiences ataxia and severe tremors. Furthermore, the individual shows signs of emotional instability and depression, yet exhibits uncontrolled and sporadic laughter. Despite the other neurological symptoms, tendon reflexes are still intact at this stage of the disease.[14]

Terminal stage

edit

In the terminal stage, the infected individual's existing symptoms, like ataxia, progress to the point where it is no longer possible to sit up without support. New symptoms also emerge: the individual develops dysphagia, which can lead to severe malnutrition, and may also become incontinent, lose the ability or will to speak, and become unresponsive to their surroundings despite maintaining consciousness.[14] Towards the end of the terminal stage, those infected often develop chronic decubitus ulcerated wounds that can be easily infected. An infected person usually dies within three months to two years after the first terminal stage symptoms, often because of aspiration pneumonia[15] or other secondary infections.[16]

Neuropathology

edit

Studies from Kuru infected individuals have revealed information explaining the effects that the disease can have on the brain. In the early stages of the disease, infected individuals may experience withdrawal, incoordination, tremors, and curling of the toes and feet.[17] To understand these difficulties in balance and coordination studies were conducted to analyze the brain of Kuru infected individuals. These studies by Klatzo et al., found that neurons in a Kuru infected brain were abnormally small and lighter in color compared to their healthy counterparts.[17] Affected neurons appear "moth-eaten" due to their characteristic deformations. [17] These abnormalities in the neurons of the brain of a person infected by Kuru were similar to the neurons of a brain of an individual infected with Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD).[17]

Causes

edit

Kuru is largely localized to the Fore people and people with whom they intermarried.[18] The Fore people ritualistically cooked and consumed body parts of their family members following their death to incorporate "the body of the dead person into the bodies of living relatives, thus helping to free the spirit of the dead".[19] Because the brain is the organ enriched in the infectious prion, women and children, who consumed brain, had a much higher likelihood of being infected than men, who preferentially consumed muscles.[20]

 
Normally folded prion protein PrPc subdomain-Residues 125–228. Note the presence of alpha helices (blue).

Prion

edit
 
Cryoelectron microscopy model of the misfolded PrPsc protein, enriched in beta sheets (center)[21]

The infectious agent is a misfolded form of a host-encoded protein called prion (PrP). Prion proteins are encoded by the Prion Protein Gene (PRNP).[22] The two forms of prion are designated as PrPc, which is a normally folded protein, and PrPsc, a misfolded form which gives rise to the disease. The two forms do not differ in their amino acid sequence; however, the pathogenic PrPsc isoform differs from the normal PrPc form in its secondary and tertiary structure. The PrPsc isoform is more enriched in beta sheets, while the normal PrPc form is enriched in alpha helices.[20] The differences in conformation allow PrPsc to aggregate and be extremely resistant to protein degradation by enzymes or by other chemical and physical means. The normal form, on the other hand, is susceptible to complete proteolysis and soluble in non-denaturing detergents.[14]

It has been suggested that pre-existing or acquired PrPsc can promote the conversion of PrPc into PrPsc, which goes on to convert other PrPc. This initiates a chain reaction that allows for its rapid propagation, resulting in the pathogenesis of prion diseases.[14]

Transmission

edit

In 1961, Australian medical researcher Michael Alpers conducted extensive field studies among the Fore accompanied by anthropologist Shirley Lindenbaum.[9] Their historical research suggested the epidemic may have originated around 1900 from a single individual who lived on the edge of Fore territory and who is thought to have spontaneously developed some form of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease.[23] Alpers and Lindenbaum's research conclusively demonstrated that kuru spread easily and rapidly in the Fore people due to their endocannibalistic funeral practices, in which relatives consumed the bodies of the dead to return the person's "life force" to the hamlet, a Fore social subunit.[24] Corpses of family members were often buried for days, then exhumed once the corpses were colonized by insect larvae, at which point the corpse would be dismembered and served with the larvae as a side dish.[25]

The demographic distribution evident in the infection rates – kuru was eight to nine times more prevalent in women and children than in men at its peak – is because Fore men considered consuming human flesh to weaken them in times of conflict or battle, while the women and children were more likely to eat the bodies of the deceased, including the brain, where the prion particles were particularly concentrated. Also, the strong possibility exists that it was passed on to women and children more easily because they took on the task of cleaning relatives after death and might have had open sores and cuts on their hands.[20]

Although ingestion of the prion particles can lead to the infection,[26] a high degree of transmission occurred if the prion particles could reach the subcutaneous tissue. With elimination of cannibalism because of Australian colonial law enforcement and the local Christian missionaries' efforts, Alpers' research showed that kuru was already declining among the Fore by the mid‑1960s. However, the mean incubation period of the disease is 14 years, and seven cases were reported with latencies of 40 years or more for those who were most genetically resilient, continuing to appear for several more decades. Sources disagree on whether the last person with kuru died in 2005 or 2009.[9][10][7][8]

Diagnosis

edit

Kuru is diagnosed by reviewing the individual's history of cerebellar signs and symptoms, performing neurological exams, and excluding other neurological diseases during exams.[15] The symptoms evaluated are typically coordination issues and involuntary muscle movements, but these markers can be confused with other diseases that affect the nervous and muscle system; physical scans are often required to differentiate Kuru from other disorders.[27][28] There is no laboratory test to determine the presence of Kuru, except for postmortem evaluation of central nervous system (CNS) tissues, so diagnoses are achieved by eliminating other possible disorders.

Electroencephalogram (EEG) is used to distinguish kuru from Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, a similar encephalopathy (any disease that affects the structure of the brain).[28] EEGs search for electrical activity in the person's brain and measure the frequency of each wave to determine if there is an issue with the brain's activity.[29] Periodic complexes (PC), reoccurring patterns with spike wave-complexes occurring at intervals, are recorded frequently in some diseases but are not presented in the kuru readings.[30] Exams and testing, like EEG, MRIs, blood test, and scans, can be used to determine if the infected person is dealing with Kuru disease or another encephalopathy. However, testing over periods of time can be difficult.

Immunity

edit
 
Cerebellum of a person who had kuru

In 2009, researchers at the Medical Research Council discovered a naturally occurring variant of a prion protein in a population from Papua New Guinea that confers strong resistance to kuru. In the study, which began in 1996,[31] researchers assessed over 3,000 people from the affected and surrounding Eastern Highland populations, and identified a variation in the prion protein G127.[32] G127 polymorphism is the result of a missense mutation, and is highly geographically restricted to regions where the kuru epidemic was the most widespread. Researchers believe that the PrnP variant occurred very recently, estimating that the most recent common ancestor lived 10 generations ago.[32]

The findings of the study could help researchers better understand and develop treatments for other related prion diseases, such as Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease[31] and other neurodegenerate diseases like Alzheimer's disease.[33]

History

edit

Kuru was first described in official reports by Australian officers patrolling the Eastern Highlands of Papua New Guinea in the early 1950s.[34] Some unofficial accounts place kuru in the region as early as 1910.[7] In 1951, Arthur Carey was the first to use the term kuru in a report to describe a new disease afflicting the Fore tribes of Papua New Guinea (PNG). In his report, Carey noted that kuru mostly affected Fore women, eventually killing them. Kuru was noted in the Fore, Yate and Usurufa people in 1952–1953 by anthropologists Ronald Berndt and Catherine Berndt.[7] In 1953, kuru was observed by patrol officer John McArthur, who provided a description of the disease in his report. McArthur believed that kuru was merely a psychosomatic episode resulting from the sorcery practices of the tribal people in the region.[34] After the disease had progressed into a larger epidemic, the tribal people asked Charles Pfarr, a Lutheran medical officer, to come to the area to report the disease to Australian authorities.[7]

Initially, the Fore people believed the causes of kuru to be sorcery or witchcraft.[35] They also thought that the magic causing kuru was contagious. It was also called negi-nagi, which meant foolish person as the victims laughed at spontaneous intervals.[36] This disease, the Fore people believed, was caused by ghosts, because of the shaking and strange behaviour that comes with kuru. Attempting to cure this, they would feed victims casuarina bark.[37]

When kuru disease had become an epidemic, Daniel Carleton Gajdusek, M.D., a virologist, and Vincent Zigas, another medical doctor, started research on the disease. In 1957, Zigas and Gajdusek published a report in the Medical Journal of Australia that suggested that kuru had a genetic origin, and that "any ethnic-environmental variables that are operating in kuru pathogenesis have not yet been determined."[38]

Cannibalism was suspected as a possible cause from the very beginning but was not formally put forth as a hypothesis until 1967 by Glasse and more formally in 1968 by Mathews, Glasse, and Lindenbaum.[36]

Even before anthropophagy had been linked to kuru, cannibalism was banned by the Australian administration of Papua New Guinea, and the practice was nearly eliminated by 1960. While the number of cases of kuru was decreasing, medical researchers were finally able to properly investigate kuru, which eventually led to the modern understanding of prions as its cause.[39]

In an effort to understand the pathology of kuru disease, Gajdusek established the first experimental tests on chimpanzees for kuru at the National Institutes of Health (NIH).[7] Michael Alpers, an Australian doctor, collaborated with Gajdusek by providing samples of brain tissues he had taken from an 11-year-old Fore girl who had died of kuru.[40] In his work, Gajdusek was also the first to compile a bibliography of kuru disease.[41] Joe Gibbs joined Gajdusek to monitor and record the behavior of the apes at the NIH and conduct their autopsies. Within two years, one of the chimps, Daisy, had developed kuru, demonstrating that an unknown disease factor was transmitted through infected biomaterial and that it was capable of crossing the species barrier to other primates. After Elisabeth Beck confirmed that this experiment had brought about the first experimental transmission of kuru, the finding was deemed a very important advance in human medicine, leading to the award of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to Gajdusek in 1976.[7]

Subsequently, E. J. Field spent large parts of the late 1960s and early 1970s in New Guinea investigating the disease,[42] connecting it to scrapie and multiple sclerosis.[43] He noted the disease's interactions with glial cells, including the critical observation that the infectious process may depend on the structural rearrangement of the host's molecules.[44] This was an early observation of what was to later become the prion hypothesis.[45]

edit
  • The Czech immunologist-poet Miroslav Holub wrote "Kuru, or the Smiling Death Syndrome" about the disease.[46]
  • The X-Files season 7 episode "Theef" features a character diagnosed with advanced kuru after his sudden death.[47]
  • The video game Dead Island, as well as Dead Island: Riptide, cite kuru as the disease that has swept the fictional islands of Banoi and Palanai.[48]
  • In the film We Are What We Are, the medical examiner is able to identify the family as cannibals after he realises that the family is suffering from kuru.[49]
  • In the post-apocalyptic book and film The Road by Cormac McCarthy, two characters practicing cannibalism demonstrate symptoms of kuru.[50]
  • In the song 'Suburbia Overture / Greetings from Mary Bell Township! / (Vampire) Culture / Love Me, Normally' by indie music artist Will Wood, kuru is mentioned in a lyric, notably stating laughter as a symptom. [51]

References

edit
  1. ^ "The epidemiology of kuru in the period 1987 to 1995", Department of Health (Australia), retrieved February 5, 2019
  2. ^ Hoskin, J.O.; Kiloh, L.G.; Cawte, J.E. (April 1969). "Epilepsy and guria: The shaking syndromes of New Guinea". Social Science & Medicine. 3 (1): 39–48. doi:10.1016/0037-7856(69)90037-7. PMID 5809623.
  3. ^ Scott, Graham (1978). The Fore Language of Papua New Guinea. Pacific Linguistics. pp. 2, 6. doi:10.15144/PL-B47. hdl:1885/146489. ISBN 978-0-85883-173-5.
  4. ^ Whitfield, Jerome T; Pako, Wandagi H; Collinge, John; Alpers, Michael P (27 November 2008). "Mortuary rites of the South Fore and kuru". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 363 (1510): 3721–3724. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0074. PMC 2581657. PMID 18849288.
  5. ^ Bichell, Rae Ellen (September 6, 2016). "When People Ate People, A Strange Disease Emerged". NPR.org. Retrieved 2018-04-08.
  6. ^ "Kuru". MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2016-11-14.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g Alpers, MP (2007). "A history of kuru". Papua and New Guinea Medical Journal. 50 (1–2): 10–9. PMID 19354007.
  8. ^ a b Rense, Sarah (September 7, 2016). "Here's What Happens to Your Body When You Eat Human Meat". Esquire.
  9. ^ a b c "A life of determination". Monash University — Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health Sciences. 2009-02-23. Archived from the original on 2015-12-10. Retrieved 20 January 2016.
  10. ^ a b Collinge, John; Whitfield, Jerome; McKintosh, Edward; Beck, John; Mead, Simon; Thomas, Dafydd J; Alpers, Michael P (June 2006). "Kuru in the 21st century—an acquired human prion disease with very long incubation periods". The Lancet. 367 (9528): 2068–2074. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68930-7. PMID 16798390. S2CID 11506094.
  11. ^ a b Alpers, Michael P (December 2005). "The epidemiology of kuru in the period 1987 to 1995". Communicable Diseases Intelligence. 29 (4): 391–399. PMID 16465931. Retrieved 2016-11-10.
  12. ^ Liberski, Pawel P.; Sikorska, Beata; Lindenbaum, Shirley; Goldfarb, Lev G.; McLean, Catriona; Hainfellner, Johannes A.; Brown, Paul (February 2012). "Kuru". Journal of Neuropathology & Experimental Neurology. 71 (2): 92–103. doi:10.1097/NEN.0b013e3182444efd. PMC 5120877. PMID 22249461.
  13. ^ Collinge, John; Whitfield, Jerome; McKintosh, Edward; Frosh, Adam; Mead, Simon; Hill, Andrew F; Brandner, Sebastian; Thomas, Dafydd; Alpers, Michael P (27 November 2008). "A clinical study of kuru patients with long incubation periods at the end of the epidemic in Papua New Guinea". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 363 (1510): 3725–3739. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0068. PMC 2581654. PMID 18849289.
  14. ^ a b c d e f Imran, Muhammad; Mahmood, Saqib (24 December 2011). "An overview of human prion diseases". Virology Journal. 8 (1): 559. doi:10.1186/1743-422X-8-559. PMC 3296552. PMID 22196171.
  15. ^ a b Mahat, Sanjay; Asuncion, Ria Monica D. (2023), "Kuru", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 32644529, retrieved 2023-10-19
  16. ^ Wadsworth, Jonathan D. F.; Joiner, Susan; Linehan, Jacqueline M.; Desbruslais, Melanie; Fox, Katie; Cooper, Sharon; Cronier, Sabrina; Asante, Emmanuel A.; Mead, Simon; Brandner, Sebastian; Hill, Andrew F.; Collinge, John (11 March 2008). "Kuru prions and sporadic Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease prions have equivalent transmission properties in transgenic and wild-type mice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (10): 3885–3890. Bibcode:2008PNAS..105.3885W. doi:10.1073/pnas.0800190105. PMC 2268835. PMID 18316717.
  17. ^ a b c d Liberski, Pawel P.; Sikorska, Beata; Lindenbaum, Shirley; Goldfarb, Lev G.; McLean, Catriona; Hainfellner, Johannes A.; Brown, Paul (February 2012). "Kuru: Genes, Cannibals and Neuropathology". The American Association of Neuropathologists. 71 (2): 92–103. PMID 22249461 – via Journal of Neuropathology and Experimental Neurology.
  18. ^ Lindenbaum, Shirley (2001-01-01). "Kuru, Prions, and Human Affairs: Thinking About Epidemics". Annual Review of Anthropology. 30 (1): 363–385. doi:10.1146/annurev.anthro.30.1.363. S2CID 162196301.
  19. ^ Whitfield, Jerome T.; Pako, Wandagi H.; Collinge, John; Alpers, Michael P. (2008-11-27). "Mortuary rites of the South Fore and kuru". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 363 (1510): 3721–3724. doi:10.1098/rstb.2008.0074. ISSN 0962-8436. PMC 2581657. PMID 18849288.
  20. ^ a b c Kuru at eMedicine
  21. ^ Kupfer, L.; Hinrichs, W.; Groschup, M. (1 September 2009). "Prion Protein Misfolding". Current Molecular Medicine. 9 (7): 826–835. doi:10.2174/156652409789105543. PMC 3330701. PMID 19860662.
  22. ^ Linden, Rafael; Martins, Vilma R.; Prado, Marco A. M.; Cammarota, Martín; Izquierdo, Iván; Brentani, Ricardo R. (April 2008). "Physiology of the Prion Protein". Physiological Reviews. 88 (2): 673–728. doi:10.1152/physrev.00007.2007. PMID 18391177.
  23. ^ Kuru: The Science and the Sorcery (Siamese Films, 2010)
  24. ^ Diamond J.M. (1997). Guns, germs, and steel: the fates of human societies. New York: W.W. Norton. p. 208. ISBN 978-0-393-03891-0.[page needed]
  25. ^ Liberski, P.P.; Brown, P. (January 2009). "Kuru: Its ramifications after fifty years" (PDF). Experimental Gerontology. 44 (1–2): 63–69. doi:10.1016/j.exger.2008.05.010. PMID 18606515. S2CID 28215397.
  26. ^ Gibbs, Clarence J.; Amyx, Herbert L.; Bacote, Alfred; Masters, Colin L.; Gajdnsek, D. Carleton (August 1980). "Oral Transmission of Kuru, Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease, and Scrapie to Nonhuman Primates". The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 142 (2): 205–208. doi:10.1093/infdis/142.2.205. PMID 6997404.
  27. ^ "Kuru: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 2023-10-19.
  28. ^ a b "Kuru: What Is It, Causes, Signs and Symptoms, and More | Osmosis". www.osmosis.org. Retrieved 2023-10-19.
  29. ^ Services, Department of Health & Human. "EEG test". www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au. Retrieved 2023-10-19.
  30. ^ Smith, S. J. M. (2005-06-01). "EEG in neurological conditions other than epilepsy: when does it help, what does it add?". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 76 (suppl 2): ii8–ii12. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2005.068486. ISSN 0022-3050. PMC 1765689. PMID 15961870.
  31. ^ a b "Brain disease 'resistance gene' evolves in Papua New Guinea community; could offer insights into CJD". ScienceDaily. 2009-11-21. Retrieved 2016-11-12.
  32. ^ a b Mead, Simon; Whitfield, Jerome; Poulter, Mark; Shah, Paresh; Uphill, James; Campbell, Tracy; Al-Dujaily, Huda; Hummerich, Holger; Beck, Jon; Mein, Charles A.; Verzilli, Claudio; Whittaker, John; Alpers, Michael P.; Collinge, John (19 November 2009). "A Novel Protective Prion Protein Variant that Colocalizes with Kuru Exposure" (PDF). New England Journal of Medicine. 361 (21): 2056–2065. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa0809716. PMID 19923577.
  33. ^ "Natural genetic variation gives complete resistance in prion diseases". Ucl.ac.uk. 2015-06-11. Retrieved 2016-11-12.
  34. ^ a b Shirley Lindenbaum (14 Apr 2015). "An annotated history of kuru". Medicine Anthropology Theory. Archived from the original on 15 September 2018. Retrieved 12 November 2016.
  35. ^ "Kuru". Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies. Archived from the original on 2016-11-21. Retrieved 2016-11-21.
  36. ^ a b Liberski, Paweł P.; Gajos, Agata; Sikorska, Beata; Lindenbaum, Shirley (7 March 2019). "Kuru, the First Human Prion Disease". Viruses. 11 (3): 232. doi:10.3390/v11030232. PMC 6466359. PMID 30866511.
  37. ^ Liberski, Paweł; Gajos, Agata; Sikorska, Beata; Lindenbaum, Shirley (2019-03-07). "Kuru, the First Human Prion Disease". Viruses. 11 (3): 232. doi:10.3390/v11030232. ISSN 1999-4915. PMC 6466359. PMID 30866511.
  38. ^ Zigas, Vincent; Gajdusek, Daniel (23 November 1957). "Kuru: Clinical study of a new syndrome resembling paralysis agitans of the eastern highlands of Australian New Guinea". Medical Journal of Australia. 2 (21): 745–754. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.1957.tb60287.x. PMID 13492772. S2CID 38647011.
  39. ^ Kennedy, John (15 May 2012). "Kuru Among the Foré — The Role of Medical Anthropology in Explaining Aetiology and Epidermiology". ArcJohn.wordpress.com. Retrieved 2016-11-21.
  40. ^ "Revisiting the history of kuru - Hektoen International". hekint.org. 30 May 2019. Retrieved 2023-09-14.
  41. ^ Liberski, P. P.; Brown, P. (2004). "Kuru: A half-opened window onto the landscape of neurodegenerative diseases". Folia Neuropathologica. 42 Suppl A: 3–14. PMID 15449456.
  42. ^ "Kuru - To Tremble with Fear". Horizon. Season 8. Episode 6. 22 February 1971. BBC2.
  43. ^ Field, EJ (7 Dec 1967). "The significance of astroglial hypertrophy in Scrapie, Kuru, Multiple Sclerosis and old age together with a note on the possible nature of the scrapie agent". Journal of Neurology. 192 (3): 265–274. doi:10.1007/bf00244170. S2CID 8855940.
  44. ^ Field, EJ (Feb 1978). "Immunological assessment of ageing: emergence of scrapie-like antigens". Age Ageing. 7 (1): 28–39. doi:10.1093/ageing/7.1.28. PMID 416662.
  45. ^ Peat, Ray. "BSE - mad cow - scrapie, etc.: Stimulated amyloid degeneration and the toxic fats". RayPeat.com.
  46. ^ Holub, Miroslav (1990). Vanishing Lung Syndrome. Translated by David Young and Dana Habova. Oberlin College Press. ISBN 0-932440-52-5.; (Faber and Faber, 1990). ISBN 0-571-14339-3[page needed]
  47. ^ "The X-Files: "First Person Shooter" / "Theef"". The A.V. Club. 2013-01-19. Retrieved 2024-01-30.
  48. ^ Estrada, Aura (2020-06-01). "Dead Island: Riptide - Tips & Tricks For New Players". ScreenRant. Retrieved 2024-01-30.
  49. ^ Lerman, Elizabeth (2020-07-25). "We Are What We Are: Ending & Cannibal Family Traditions Explained". ScreenRant. Retrieved 2024-01-30.
  50. ^ Vasundhra (2023-06-18). "What is Cannibalism in Anthropology? | Anthroholic". Retrieved 2024-01-30.
  51. ^ Will Wood (2024-11-16). "Will Wood". Retrieved 2024-11-16.

Further reading

edit
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kuru_(disease)&oldid=1257698439"