Largest prehistoric animals

The largest prehistoric animals include both vertebrate and invertebrate species. Many of them are described below, along with their typical range of size (for the general dates of extinction, see the link to each). Many species mentioned might not actually be the largest representative of their clade due to the incompleteness of the fossil record and many of the sizes given are merely estimates since no complete specimen have been found. Their body mass, especially, is largely conjecture because soft tissue was rarely fossilized. Generally the size of extinct species was subject to energetic[1] and biomechanical constraints.[2]

From left to right: a polar bear (Ursus maritimus), a giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), †Paraceratherium transouralicum, †Patagotitan mayorum, two humans (Homo sapiens), †Palaeoloxodon recki, an African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) and a white rhino (Ceratotherium simum)

Non-mammalian synapsids (Synapsida)

edit

Caseasaurs (Caseasauria)

edit

The herbivorous Alierasaurus was the largest caseid and the largest amniote to have lived at the time, with an estimated length around 6–7 m (20–23 ft).[3] Cotylorhynchus hancocki is also large, with an estimated length and weight of at least 6 m (20 ft)[4] and more than 500 kg (1,100 lb).[5]

Edaphosaurids (Edaphosauridae)

edit
 
Size comparison of some species of Edaphosaurus

The largest edaphosaurids were Lupeosaurus at 3 m (9.8 ft) long[6] and Edaphosaurus, which could reach even more than 3 m (9.8 ft) in length.[7]

Sphenacodontids (Sphenacodontidae)

edit

The biggest carnivorous synapsid of Early Permian was Dimetrodon, which could reach 4.6 m (15 ft) and 250 kg (550 lb).[8] The largest members of the genus Dimetrodon were also the world's first fully terrestrial apex predators.[9]

Tappenosauridae

edit

The Middle Permian Tappenosaurus was estimated at 5.5 m (18 ft) in length, nearly as large as the largest dinocephalians.[10]

Therapsids (Therapsida)

edit

Anomodonts (Anomodontia)

edit
 
Lisowicia compared to a human

The plant-eating dicynodont Lisowicia bojani is the largest-known of all non-mammalian synapsids, at about 4.5 m (15 ft) long, 2.6 m (8 ft 6 in) tall, and 9,000 kg (20,000 lb) in body mass.[11][12][13] However, in 2019 its weight was later more reliably estimated by modelling its mass from the estimated total volume of its body. These estimates varied depending on the girth of its rib cage and the amount of soft tissue modelled around the skeleton, with an overall average weight of 5.9 metric tons (6.5 short tons), and a lowermost estimate with minimal body fat and other tissues at 4.9 metric tons (5.4 short tons) and a maximum of 7 metric tons (7.7 short tons) at its bulkiest.[14]

Dinocephalians (Dinocephalia)

edit
 
Anteosaurus overviewing the landscape

Among the largest carnivorous non-mammalian synapsids was the dinocephalian Anteosaurus, which was 5–6 m (16–20 ft) long, and weighed 500–600 kg (1,100–1,300 lb).[15][16] Fully grown Titanophoneus from the same family Anteosauridae likely had a skull of 1 m (3.3 ft) long.[16] Another enormous dinocephalian was the Late Permian Eotitanosuchus (a possible synonym to Biarmosuchus[17]). Adult specimens could reach 6 m (20 ft) in length and over 600 kg (1,300 lb) in weight.[17]

Gorgonopsians (Gorgonopsia)

edit
 
Photo-reconstruction of Inostrancevia

Inostrancevia latifrons is the largest known gorgonopsian, with a skull length of more than 60 cm (24 in), a total length approaching 3.5 m (11 ft) and a mass of 300 kg (660 lb).[18] Rubidgea atrox is the largest African gorgonopsian, with skull of nearly 45 cm (18 in) long.[19] Other large gorgonopsians include Dinogorgon with skull of ~40 cm (16 in) long,[20] Leontosaurus with skull of almost 40 cm (16 in) long,[19] and Sycosaurus with skull of ~38 cm (15 in) long.[19]

Therocephalians (Therocephalia)

edit

The largest of therocephalians is Scymnosaurus,[21][22] which reached a size of the modern hyena.[23]

Non-mammalian cynodonts (Cynodontia)

edit

Mammals (Mammalia)

edit

Non-therian mammals

edit

Gobiconodonts (Gobiconodonta)

edit
 
A reconstruction of Repenomamus

The largest gobiconodont and the largest well-known Mesozoic mammal was Repenomamus.[27][28][29][30][31][32] The known adult of Repenomamus giganticus reached a total length of around 1 m (3 ft 3 in) and an estimated mass of 12–14 kg (26–31 lb).[29] With such parameters it surpassed in size several small theropod dinosaurs of the Early Cretaceous.[33] Gobiconodon was also a large mammal,[31][32] it weighed 5.4 kilograms (12 lb),[29] had a skull of 10 cm (3.9 in) in length, and had 35 cm (14 in) in presacral body length.[34]

Multituberculates (Multituberculata)

edit

The largest multituberculate,[35] Taeniolabis taoensis is the largest non-therian mammal known, at a weight possibly exceeding 100 kg (220 lb).[36]

Monotremes (Monotremata)

edit
 
Photo-reconstruction of Murrayglossus hacketti (Zaglossus hacketti) by paleoartist Roman Uchytel

Metatherians (Metatheria)

edit
 
Thylacosmilus compared to a human

Marsupials (Marsupialia)

edit
  • The largest known marsupial, and the largest metatherian, is the extinct Diprotodon, about 3 m (9.8 ft) long, standing 2 m (6 ft 7 in) tall and weighing up to 2,786 kg (6,142 lb).[48] Fellow vombatiform Palorchestes azael was similar in length being around 2.5 m (8.2 ft), with body mass estimates indicating it could exceed 1,000 kg (2,200 lb).[49]
  • The largest known carnivorous marsupial was Thylacoleo carnifex. Measurements taken from a number of specimens show they averaged 101 to 164 kg (223 to 362 lb) in weight.[50][51]
  • The largest known kangaroo was an as yet unnamed species of Macropus, estimated to weigh 274 kg (604 lb),[52] larger than the largest known specimen of Procoptodon, which could grow up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) and weigh 230 kg (510 lb).[53] Some species from the genus Sthenurus were similar in size or a bit larger than the extant grey kangaroo (Macropus giganteus).[54]
  • The largest potoroid ever recorded was Borungaboodie, which was nearly 30% bigger than the largest living species and weighted up to 10 kg (22 lb).[55]

Non-placental eutherians

edit
 
Restoration of Coryphodons

Cimolestans (Cimolesta)

edit

The largest known cimolestan is Coryphodon, 1 m (3 ft 3 in) high at the shoulder, 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) long[56][57] and up to 700 kg (1,500 lb) of mass.[58] Barylambda was also a huge mammal, at 650 kg (1,430 lb).[59] Wortmania and Psittacotherium from the group Taeniodonta were among the largest mammals of the Early Paleocene.[60] Lived as soon as half a million years after K–Pg boundary, Wortmania reached 20 kg (44 lb) in body mass. Psittacotherium, which appeared two million years later, reached 50 kg (110 lb).[60]

Leptictids (Leptictida)

edit

The largest leptictid ever discovered is Leptictidium tobieni from the Middle Eocene of Germany. It had a skull 101 mm (4.0 in) long, head with trunk 375 mm (14.8 in) long, and tail 500 mm (20 in) long.[61] Close European relatives from the same family Pseudorhyncocyonidae had skulls of 67–101 mm (2.6–4.0 in) in length.[61]

Tenrecs and allies (Afroscida)

edit

The larger of the two species of bibymalagasy (Plesiorycteropus madagascariensis), extinct tenrec relatives from Madagascar, is estimated to have weighed from 10 to 18 kilograms (21 to 40 lb).[62]

Even-toed ungulates (Artiodactyla)

edit
 
The extinct Hippopotamus gorgops is the most massive of the fossil even-toed ungulates
 
A skeleton of Bison latifrons
  • The largest of Bovinae as well as the largest bovid was Bison latifrons. It reached a weight from 1,250 kg (2,760 lb)[69][70] to 2,000 kg (4,400 lb),[71] 4.75 m (15.6 ft) in length, shoulder height of 2.31 m (7.6 ft),[72] and had horns that spanned 2.13 m (7 ft 0 in).[73] The North American Bison antiquus reached up to 4.6 m (15 ft) long, 2.27 m (7.4 ft) tall, weight of 1,588 kg (3,501 lb),[74] and horn span of 1 m (3.3 ft).[72] The African Pelorovis reached 2 t (2.2 short tons) in weight and had bony cores of the horns about 1 m (3 ft 3 in) long.[75] Another enormous bovid, the african giant buffalo (Syncerus antiquus) reached 3 m (9.8 ft) in length from muzzle to the end of the tail, 1.85 m (6.1 ft) in height at the withers, 1.7 m (5.6 ft) in height at the hindquarters,[76][77] and the distance between the tips of its horns was as large as 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in).[76] Aside from local populations and subspecies of extant species, such as the gaur population in Sri Lanka, European bison in British Isles, Caucasian wisent and Carpathian wisent, the largest modern extinct bovid is aurochs (Bos primigenius) with an average height at the shoulders of 155–180 cm (61–71 in) in bulls and 135–155 cm (53–61 in) in cows, while aurochs populations in Hungary had bulls reaching 155–160 cm (61–63 in).[78] The kouprey (Bos sauveli), reaching 1.7–1.9 m (5 ft 7 in – 6 ft 3 in) in shoulder height,[79][80] has existed since the Middle Pleistocene[81] and is also considered to be possibly extinct.[82][83]
  • The long-legged Megalotragus is possibly the largest known alcelaphine bovid,[84] bigger than the extant wildebeest.[85] The tips of horns of M. priscus were located at a distance of about 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) from each other.[86]
 
Megaloceros giganteus
  • The extinct cervid Irish elk (Megaloceros giganteus) reached over 2.1 m (7 ft) in height, 680 kg (1,500 lb) in mass and could have antlers spanning up to 4.3 m (14 ft) across, about twice the maximum span for a moose's antlers.[87][88] The giant moose (Cervalces latifrons) reached 2.1 to 2.4 m (6.9 to 7.9 ft) high[89] and was twice as heavy as the Irish elk but its antler span at 2.5 m (8.2 ft) was smaller than that of Megaloceros.[90][91] North American stag-moose (Cervalces scotti) reached 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) in length and a weight of 708.5 kilograms (1,562 lb).[92][93]
  • The largest known giraffid, aside from the extant giraffe, is Sivatherium, with a body weight of 1,250 kg (2,760 lb).[94]
  • The largest protoceratid was Synthetoceras, it reached 2 m (6 ft 7 in) long and 150–200 kg (330–440 lb) in mass.[95][96]
  • The largest known wild suid to ever exist was Kubanochoerus gigas, having measured up to 500 kg (1,100 lb) and stood around 1 m (3 ft 3 in) tall at the shoulder.[97] Megalochoerus could be similar in size, possibly weighing 303 kg (668 lb) or 526 kg (1,160 lb).[98]
  • The largest tayassuid extinct Platygonus species were similar in size to modern peccaries especially giant peccary, at around 1 m (3.3 ft) in body length, and had long legs, allowing them to run well. They also had a pig-like snout and long tusks which were probably used to fend off predators.[99]
  • The largest camelid was Titanotylopus from the Miocene of North America. It possibly reached 2,485.6 kg (5,480 lb) and a shoulder height of over 3.4 m (11 ft).[100][101] The Syrian camel (Camelus moreli) was twice as big as the modern camels.[102] It was 3 m (9.8 ft) at the shoulder[103] and 4 m (13 ft) tall.[102] Camelops had legs to be 20% longer than that of Dromedary, and was about 2.3 m (7 ft 7 in) tall at the shoulder and weighed about 1,000 kg (2,200 lb).[104]
  • The anoplotheriid Anoplotherium is thought to have been capable of reaching up to 271 kg (597 lb) in the case of A. commune and 229 kg (505 lb) in the case of A. latipes.[105] A. latipes in particular could have measured more than 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) in length and 1.25 m (4 ft 1 in) in shoulder height. Because it was probably capable of facultative bipedalism, it could have been capable of standing over 3 m (9.8 ft) tall.[106]

Cetaceans (Cetacea)

edit
 
Size comparison between a human and two species of Basilosaurus, B. cetiodes (dark blue) and B. isis
  • The heaviest archeocete, and possibly the heaviest known mammal was Perucetus, with weight estimated at 85–340 t (84–335 long tons; 94–375 short tons), while length is estimated at 17.0–20.1 meters (55.8–65.9 ft),[107] possibly rivalling the Blue Whale in mass. However, Motani and Pyenson in 2024 argued that it is extremely difficult for Perucetus to rival or exceed the blue whale in weight. They discussed that since Perucetus is much shorter than the blue whale in length, it should be at least 3.375 times denser or 1.83 times fatter to weigh heavier, which is impossible for vertebrates whose whole-body density range from 0.75 to 1.2. Motani and Pyenson tested the hypotheses of Bianucci and colleagues by performing various body mass estimation methods: the regression-based and volumetric mass estimation resulted in 60–114 t (59–112 long tons; 66–126 short tons) for a length range of 17–20 m (56–66 ft), though the likely body mass range would fall within 60–70 t (59–69 long tons; 66–77 short tons) . They also claimed that the previous estimation is inflated by assumed isometry, and that the effect from pachyostosis on the estimation of body mass is not negligible as it resulted in underestimation.[108] The longest of known Eocene archeocete whales was Basilosaurus at 17–20 m (56–66 ft) in length.[109][110][111]
  • The largest squalodelphinid was Macrosqualodelphis at 3.5 m (11 ft) in length.[112]
  • Some Neogene rorquals were comparable in size to modern huge relatives. Parabalaenoptera was estimated to be about the size of the modern gray whale,[113] about 16 m (52 ft) long. Some balaenopterids perhaps rivaled the blue whale in terms of size,[113] though other studies disagree that any baleen whale grew that large in the Miocene.[114]

Odd-toed ungulates (Perissodactyla)

edit
 
Relative sizes of †Paraceratherium, †Elasmotherium, white rhino, Indian rhino, black rhino and Sumatran rhino compared to a human
 
Life restoration of Moropus elatus
  • One of the largest known perissodactyls, and the second largest land mammal (see Palaeoloxodon namadicus) of all time was the hornless rhino Paraceratherium. The largest individual known was estimated at 4.8 m (15.7 ft) tall at the shoulders, 7.4 m (24.3 ft) in length from nose to rump, and 17 t (18.7 short tons) in weight.[115][116]
  • A large specimen of an unnamed species of the related Dzungariotherium has been estimated to be around 20.6 metric tonnes.[117]
  • Some prehistoric horned rhinos also grew to large sizes. The biggest Elasmotherium reached up to 5–5.2 m (16–17 ft) long,[118] 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) high[119] and weighed 3.5–5 t (3.9–5.5 short tons).[120][118][119] Such parameters make it the largest rhino of the Quaternary.[120] Woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis) of the same time reached 1,100–1,500 kg (2,400–3,300 lb)[121] or 2,000 kg (4,400 lb),[122][123] 1.93 m (6 ft 4 in) at the shoulder height and 4.6 m (15 ft) in length.[124]
  • Metamynodon, an amynodontid, reached 4 m (13 ft) in length, comparable to Hippopotamus in measurement and shape.[125]
  • The giant tapir (Tapirus augustus) was the largest tapir ever, at about 623 kg (1,373 lb)[126] and 1 m (3.3 ft) tall at the shoulders.[127] Earlier, this mammal was estimated even bigger, at 1.5 m (4.9 ft) tall, and assigned to the separate genus Megatapirus.[127]
  • The largest known lophiodont is Lophiodon, with L. lautricense being estimated to reach more than 2,000 kg (4,400 lb) in weight.[128]
  • One of the biggest chalicotheres was Moropus.[129] It stood about 2.4 metres (8 ft) tall at the shoulder.[130]
  • Late Eocene perissodactyls from the family Brontotheriidae attained huge sizes. The North American Megacerops (also known as Brontotherium[131]) reached 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) tall at the shoulders,[132] 5 m (16 ft) in length,[131] and 3 t (6,600 lb) in weight.[133] Embolotherium from Asia was equal in size.[134]
  • The largest prehistoric horse was Equus giganteus of North America. It was estimated to grow to more than 1,250 kg (1.38 short tons) and 2 m (6 ft 7 in) at the shoulders.[135] The largest anchitherine equid was Hypohippus at 403 to 600 kg (888 to 1,323 lb), comparable to large modern domestic horses.[136][137] Megahippus is another large anchitheriine. With the body mass of 266.2 kg (587 lb) it was much heavier than most of its close relatives.[136]
  • Among the largest-sized genera of palaeotheres, close relatives of horses, is Palaeotherium, with P. giganteum being estimated to reach weights of more than 700 kg (1,500 lb).[138] Previously until the naming of P. giganteum in 1994, P. magnum was considered the largest species of Palaeotherium,[139] potentially reaching 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) in shoulder height and 2.52 m (8 ft 3 in) in length.[140] Another palaeothere Cantabrotherium is estimated to have weighed about 600 kg (1,300 lb).[138]

Phenacodontids (Phenacodontidae)

edit

The largest known phenacodontid is Phenacodus. It was 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) long[141] and weighed up to 56 kg (123 lb).[142]

Dinoceratans (Dinocerata)

edit

The largest known dinoceratan was Eobasileus with skull length of 102 cm (40 in), 2.1 m (6 ft 11 in) tall at the back and 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall at the shoulder.[143] Another huge animal of this group was Uintatherium, with skull length of 76 cm (30 in), 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall at the shoulder,[143] 4 m (13 ft) in length and 2.25 t (2.48 short tons), the size of a rhinoceros.[144] Despite their large size, Eobasileus as well as Uintatherium had a very small brain.[143][144]

Carnivores (Carnivora)

edit

Caniformia

edit
 
Arctodus simus reconstruction
 
Chapalmalania, the giant procyonid
 
Skeletal mount of Epicyon haydeni
  • The largest terrestrial mammalian carnivore and the largest known bear, as well as the largest known mammalian land predator of all time, was Arctotherium angustidens, the South American short-faced bear. A humerus of A. angustidens from Buenos Aires indicates that the males of the species could have weighed 1,588–1,749 kg (3,501–3,856 lb) and stood at least 3.4 m (11 ft) tall on their hind-limbs.[145][146] Another huge bear was the giant short-faced bear (Arctodus simus), with the average weight of 625 kg (1,378 lb) and the maximum estimated at 957 kg (2,110 lb).[147] There is a guess that the largest individuals of this species could reached even larger mass, up to 1,200 kg (2,600 lb).[145] The extinct cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) was also heavier than many recent bears. Largest males weighed as much as 1,000 kg (2,200 lb).[148] Ailuropoda baconi from the Pleistocene was larger than the modern giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca).[149]
  • The biggest odobenid and one of the biggest pinnipeds to have ever existed is Pontolis magnus, with a skull length of 60 cm (24 in) (twice as large as the skulls of modern male walruses)[150] and having a total body length of more than 4 m (13 ft).[151][152] Only the modern male elephant seals (Mirounga) reach similar sizes.[151] The second largest prehistoric pinniped is Gomphotaria pugnax with a skull length of nearly 47 cm (19 in).[150]
  • One of the largest of prehistoric otariids is Thalassoleon, comparable in size to the biggest extant fur seals. An estimated weight of T. mexicanus is no less than 295–318 kg (650–701 lb).[153]
  • The biggest known mustelid to ever exist was likely the giant otter, Enhydriodon. It exceeded 3 m (9.8 ft) in length, and would have weighed in at around 200 kg (440 lb), much larger than any other known mustelid, living or extinct.[154][155][156] There were other giant otters, like Siamogale, at around 50 kg (110 lb)[157] and Megalenhydris, which was larger than a modern-day giant river otter.[158] Megalictis was the largest purely terrestrial mustelid[159] (although Enhydriodon had recently been mentioned as the largest mustelid that also happens to be a terrestrial predator[154]). Similar in size to the jaguar, Megalictis ferox had even wider skull, almost as wide as of the black bear.[159] Megalictis had a powerful bite force, allowing it to eat large prey and crush bones, as modern hyenas and jaguars can.[159] Another large-bodied mustelid was the superficially cat-like Ekorus from the Miocene of Africa. At almost 44 kg (97 lb), the long-legged Ekorus was about the size of a wolf[160] and filling a similar to leopards ecological niche before big cats came to the continent.[161] Other huge mustelids include Perunium[162] and hypercarnivorous Eomellivora, both from the Late Miocene.[163]
  • The heaviest procyonid was possibly South American Chapalmalania. It reached 1.5 metres (4.9 ft) in body length with a short tail and 150 kilograms (330 lb), comparable in size to an American black bear (Ursus americanus).[164] Another huge procyonid was Cyonasua, which weighted about 15–25 kg (33–55 lb), about the same size as a medium-sized dog.[165]
  • The largest canid of all time was Epicyon haydeni, which stood 90 cm (35 in) tall at the shoulder, had a body length of 2.4 m (7.9 ft) and weighed 100–125 kg (220–276 lb),[166][167][168] with the heaviest known specimen weighing up to 170 kg (370 lb).[42] The extinct dire wolf (Aenocyon dirus) reached 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in length and weighed between 50 and 110 kg (110 and 243 lb).[42][169] The largest wolf (Canis lupus) subspecies ever existed in Europe is the Canis lupus maximus from the Late Pleistocene of France. Its long bones are 10% larger than those of extant European wolves and 20% longer than those of C. l. lunellensis.[170] The Late Pleistocene Italian wolf was morphometrically close to C. l. maximus.[171]
  • The largest bear-dog was a species of Pseudocyon weighing around 773 kg (1,704 lb), representing a very large individual.[172]

Feliformia

edit
 
Comparison between Amphimachairodus giganteus and the modern domestic cat
 
Skeleton of Panthera atrox at the La Brea Tar Pits Museum

Hyaenodonts (Hyaenodonta)

edit

The largest hyaenodont was Simbakubwa at 1,500 kg (3,300 lb).[196] Another giant hyaenodont, Megistotherium reached 500 kg (1,100 lb)[42] and had a skull of 66.4 cm (26.1 in) in length.[197]

Oxyaenids (Oxyaenidae)

edit
 
Sarkastodon

The largest known oxyaenid was Sarkastodon weighing in at 800 kg (1,800 lb).[42]

Mesonychians (Mesonychia)

edit

Some mesonychians reached a size of a bear. Such large were Mongolonyx from Asia[198] and Ankalagon from North America.[199][200] Another large mesonychian is Harpagolestes with a skull length of a half a meter in some species.[198]

Bats (Chiroptera)

edit

Found in Quaternary deposits of South and Central Americas, Desmodus draculae had a wingspan of 0.5 m (20 in) and a body mass of up to 60 g (2.1 oz). Such proportions make it the largest vampire bat that ever evolved.[201]

Hedgehogs, gymnures, shrews, and moles (Eulipotyphla)

edit
 
Deinogalerix skeleton

The largest known animal of the group Eulipotyphla was Deinogalerix,[202] measuring up to 60 cm (24 in) in total length, with a skull up to 21 cm (8.3 in) long.[203]

Rodents (Rodentia)

edit
 
The giant beaver (Castoroides ohioensis)
  • Several of the extinct South American dinomyids were much bigger than the modern rodents. Josephoartigasia monesi was the largest-known rodent of all time, approximately weighing an estimated 480–500 kg (1,060–1,100 lb).[204] Phoberomys pattersoni weighed 125–150 kg (276–331 lb).[204] Both Josephoartigasia and Phoberomys reached about 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) tall at the shoulder.[205] Another huge dinomyid, Telicomys gigantissimus had a minimal weight of 200 kg (440 lb).[205]
  • Amblyrhiza inundata from the family Heptaxodontidae was a massive animal, it weighed 50–200 kg (110–440 lb).[206][205]
  • The largest beaver was the giant beaver (Castoroides) of North America. It grew over 2 m in length and weighed roughly 90 to 125 kg (198 to 276 lb), also making it one of the largest rodents to ever exist.[207]
  • The largest old world porcupine are the Hystrix refossa was larger than living porcupines. It was approximately 20% larger than its closest relative, the living Indian porcupine (H. indica), reaching lengths of over 115 cm (45 in).

Rabbits, hares, and pikas (Lagomorpha)

edit

The biggest known prehistoric lagomorph is Minorcan giant lagomorph Nuralagus rex at 12 kg (26 lb).[208]

Pangolins (Pholidota)

edit

The largest pangolin was the extinct Manis palaeojavanica[209] Its total length is measured up to 2.5 m (8.2 ft).[210]

Primates (Primates)

edit
 
Reconstruction of Gigantopithecus blackii

Elephants, mammoths, and mastodons (Proboscidea)

edit
 
Steppe mammoth skeletal mount
 
Mounted Deinotherium skeleton
  • The elephant Palaeoloxodon namadicus has been suggested to have been the largest land mammal ever, based on a particularly large partial femur which was estimated to have belonged to an individual 22 t (24.3 short tons) in weight and about 5.2 m (17.1 ft) tall at the shoulder, though the author of the estimate said that this was speculative and should be treated with caution.[115] In 2023, a publication by Gregory S. Paul and Larramendi estimated that another specimen identified as cf. P. namadicus, also only known from a partial femur, would have weighed 18–19 tonnes (40,000–42,000 lb).Other authors have noted that weight estimates for proboscideans based on single bones can lead to estimates that are "highly improbable" compared to accurate estimates from complete skeletons.[228] In 2024, Biswas, Chang and Tsai estimated a maximum shoulder height of over 4.5 metres (15 ft) and suggested that the body mass for 5 measured specimens ranged from 13.2 to 18.5 tonnes (29,000 to 41,000 lb) from specimens from Taiwan.[229] The largest individual reported individual of the steppe mammoth of Eurasia (Mammuthus trogontherii) was estimated to reach 4.5 m (14.8 ft) at the shoulders and 14.3 t (15.8 short tons) in weight.[115][230] Stegodon zdanskyi, the biggest species of Stegodon, was 13 t (14.3 short tons) in body mass.[115] Another enormous proboscidean is Stegotetrabelodon syrticus, over 4 m (13 ft) in height and 11 to 12 t (12.1 to 13.2 short tons) in weight.[115] The Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) was about 4 m (13.1 ft) tall at the shoulder but didn't weigh as much as other huge mammoths. Its average mass was 9.5 t (10.5 short tons) with one unusually large specimen about 12.5 t (13.8 short tons).[115] Columbian mammoths had very long tusks. The largest known mammoth tusk, 4.9 m (16 ft) long, belonged to this species.[231]
  • The mammutid "Mammut" borsoni is one of the largest known proboscideans and land mammals. The average fully-grown male is estimated to have been 4.1 m (13 ft) tall and weighed about 16 t (17.6 short tons), with very large males possibly rivalling the estimated size of the largest Palaeoloxodon namadicus.[115] This species also had the longest tusks of any animals with the largest recorded specimen being 5.02 m (16.5 ft) long from basis to tip along the curve.[232]
  • Deinotherium was the largest proboscidean in Deinotheriidae family. Bones retrieved in Crete confirm the existence of specimen 4.1 m (13 ft) tall at the shoulders and more than 14 t (15.4 short tons) in weight.[115]

Sea cows (Sirenia)

edit

According to reports, Steller's sea cows have grown to 8 to 9 m (26 to 30 ft) long as adults, much larger than any extant sirenians.[233] The weight of Steller's sea cows is estimated to be 8–10 t (8.8–11.0 short tons).[234]

With its direct ancestor the Cuesta sea cow being around 9 m (30 ft) long and possibly 10 tonnes (11 short tonnes) in weight.[235]

Arsinoitheres (Arsinoitheriidae)

edit
 
Skeleton of Arsinoitherium

The largest known arsinoitheriid was Arsinoitherium. A. zitteli would have been 1.75 m (5 ft 9 in) tall at the shoulders, and 3 m (9.8 ft) long.[236][237] A. giganteum reached even larger size than A. zitteli.[238]

Hyraxes (Hyracoidea)

edit

Some of the prehistoric hyraxes were extremely large compared to modern small relatives. The largest hyracoid ever evolved is Titanohyrax ultimus.[239] With the mass estimation in rage of 600 kg (1,300 lb) to over 1,300 kg (2,900 lb) it was close in size to Sumatran rhinoceros.[240] Another enormous hyrax is Megalohyrax which had skull of 391 mm (15.4 in) in length[241] and reached the size of tapir.[239][242] More recent Gigantohyrax was three times as large as the extant relative Procavia capensis,[243] although it is noticeably smaller than earlier Megalohyrax and Titanohyrax.[244]

Desmostylians (Desmostylia)

edit
 
Desmostylus skeletal diagram

The largest known desmostylian was a species of Desmostylus, with skull length of 81.8 cm (32.2 in) and comparable in size to the Steller's sea cow.[245]

Paleoparadoxia is also known as one of the largest desmostylians, with body length of 3.03 m (9.9 ft).[246]

Armadillos, glyptodonts and pampatheres (Cingulata)

edit

The largest cingulate known is Doedicurus, at 4 m (13 ft) long, 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) high[144] and reaching a mass of approximately 1,910 to 2,370 kg (2.11 to 2.61 short tons).[citation needed] The largest species of Glyptodon, Glyptodon clavipes, reached 3–3.3 m (9.8–10.8 ft) in length[247][144] and 2 t (2.2 short tons) in weight.[citation needed]

Anteaters and sloths (Pilosa)

edit
Skeleton and illustration of Megatherium

The largest known pilosan is Eremotherium, a ground sloth with an estimated weight of up to 6.55 t (7.22 short tons) and a length of up to 6 m (20 ft),[248] which is as big as a bull African bush elephant. The closely related ground sloth Megatherium attained similarly large dimensions.[249]

Astrapotherians (Astrapotheria)

edit

Some of the largest known astrapotherians weighed about 3–4 t (3.3–4.4 short tons), including the genus Granastrapotherium[250] and some species of Parastrapotherium (P. martiale).[251] The skeleton remains suggests that the species Hilarcotherium miyou was even larger, with a weight of 6.456 t (7.117 short tons).[252]

Litopterns (Litopterna)

edit

The largest known litoptern was Macrauchenia, which had three hoofs per foot. It was a relatively large animal, with a body length of around 3 m (9.8 ft).[253]

Notoungulates (Notoungulata)

edit

The largest notoungulate known of complete remains is Toxodon. It was about 2.7 m (8 ft 10 in) in body length, and about 1.5 m (4 ft 11 in) high at the shoulder and resembled a heavy rhinoceros. Although incomplete, the preserved fossils suggests that Mixotoxodon were the most massive member of the group, with a weight about 3.8 t (4.2 short tons).[254]

Pyrotherians (Pyrotheria)

edit

The largest mammal of the South American order Pyrotheria was Pyrotherium at 2.9–3.6 m (9 ft 6 in – 11 ft 10 in) in length and 1.8–3.5 t (4,000–7,700 lb) in weight.[255]

Reptiles (Reptilia)

edit

Lizards and snakes (Squamata)

edit
 
Megalania skeletal reconstruction on Melbourne Museum steps
  • Mosasaurs are the largest-known squamates. The largest-known mosasaur is likely Mosasaurus hoffmanni, estimated at more than 17 m (56 ft) in length,[256][257] however these estimations are based on heads and total body length ratio 1:10, which is unlikely for Mosasaurus, and probably that ratio is about 1:7.[258] Another giant mosasaur is Tylosaurus, estimated at 10–14 m (33–46 ft) in length.[259][260] Another mosasaur, Prognathodon can reach similar size.
  • The largest known prehistoric snake is Titanoboa cerrejonensis, estimated at 12.8 m (42 ft) or even 14.3 m (47 ft)[261] in length and 1,135 kg (2,502 lb) in weight,[262] and madtsoiid Vasuki indicus which is estimated to reach between 11–15 m (36–49 ft).[263] A close rival in size to those snakes is palaeophiid marine snake Palaeophis colossaeus, which may have been around 9 m (30 ft) in length[262][264][265] or even up to 12.3 m (40 ft).[266] Another known very large fossil snake is Gigantophis garstini, estimated at 9.3–10.7 m (31–35 ft) in length,[267][268] although later study shows smaller estimation about 6.6–7.2 m (22–24 ft).[269] The largest fossil python is Liasis dubudingala with length roughly 9 m (30 ft).[270] The largest viper as well as the largest venomous snake ever recorded is Laophis crotaloides from the Early Pliocene of Greece. This snake reached over 3 m (9.8 ft) in length and 26 kg (57 lb) in weight.[271][272] Another huge fossil viper is indeterminate species of Vipera. With a length of around 2 m (6 ft 7 in) it was one of the biggest predators of Mallorca during the Early Pliocene.[273] The largest known blind snake is Boipeba tayasuensis with estimated total length of 1.1 m (3 ft 7 in).[274]
  • The largest known land lizard is probably megalania (Varanus priscus) at 7 m (23 ft) in length.[275] As extant relatives, megalania could have been venomous and in that case this lizard was also the largest venomous vertebrate ever evolved.[276] However, maximum size of this animal is subject to debate.[277]

Turtles, tortoises and close relatives (Pantestudines)

edit

Cryptodira

edit
  • The largest known turtle ever was Archelon ischyros at 5 m (16 ft) long and 2,200 kg (4,900 lb).[278] Possible second-largest sea turtle was Protostega at 3.9 m (13 ft) in total body length.[279][280] There is even a larger specimen of this genus from Texas estimated at 4.2 m (14 ft) in total length.[281][279] Partially known Cratochelone is estimated to reach 4 m (13 ft) in total length.[282] Another huge prehistoric sea turtle is the Late Cretaceous Gigantatypus, estimated at over 3.5 m (11 ft) in length.[283] Psephophorus terrypratchetti from the Eocene attained 2.3–2.5 m (7.5–8.2 ft) in body length.[284]
  • The largest tortoise was Megalochelys atlas at up to 2 m (6.6 ft) in shell length[285] and weighing 0.8–1.0 t (1,800–2,200 lb).[133] M. margae had carapace of 1.4–2 m (4.6–6.6 ft) long; an unnamed species from Java reached at least 1.75 m (5.7 ft) in carapace length.[286] The Cenozoic Titanochelon were also larger than extant giant tortoises, with a shell length of up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in).[287][288] Other giant tortoises include Centrochelys marocana at 1.8–2 m (5.9–6.6 ft) in carapace length and Mesoamerican Hesperotestudo sp. at 1.5 m (4.9 ft) in carapace length.[286]
  • The largest trionychid ever recorded is indeterminate specimen GSP-UM 3019 from the Middle Eocene of Pakistan. Bony carapace of GSP-UM 3019 is 120 cm (3.9 ft) long and 110 cm (3.6 ft) wide indicates the total carapace diameter (with soft margin) about 2 m (6.6 ft).[289] Drazinderetes tethyensis from the same formation had a bony carapace 80 cm (2.6 ft) long and 70 cm (2.3 ft) wide.[289] Another huge trionychid is North American Axestemys byssinus at over 2 m (6.6 ft) in total length.[290]

Side-necked turtles (Pleurodira)

edit
 
The fossil of carapace of Stupendemys geographicus

The largest freshwater turtle of all time was the Miocene podocnemid Stupendemys, with an estimated parasagittal carapace length of 2.86 m (9 ft 5 in) and weight of up to 1,145 kg (2,524 lb).[291] Carbonemys cofrinii from the same family had a shell that measured about 1.72 m (5 ft 8 in),[292][293][294] complete shell was estimated at 1.8 m (5.9 ft).[295]

Macrobaenids (Macrobaenidae)

edit

The largest macrobaenids were the Early Cretaceous Yakemys, Late Cretaceous Anatolemys, and Paleocene Judithemys. All reached 70 cm (2.3 ft) in carapace length.[296]

Meiolaniformes

edit
 
Skeleton of Meiolania platyceps

The largest meiolaniid was Meiolania. Meiolania platyceps had a carapace 100 cm (3.3 ft) long[286] and probably reached over 3 m (9.8 ft) in total body length.[297] An unnamed Late Pleistocene species from Queensland was even larger, up to 200 cm (6.6 ft) in carapace length.[286] Ninjemys oweni reached 100 cm (3.3 ft) in carapace length[286] and 200 kg (440 lb) in weight.[298]

Sauropterygians (Sauropterygia)

edit

Placodonts and close relatives (Placodontiformes)

edit

Placodus was among the largest placodonts, with a length of up to 3 m (9.8 ft).[299]

Nothosaurs and close relatives (Nothosauroidea)

edit

The largest nothosaur as well as the largest Triassic sauropterygian was Nothosaurus giganteus at 7 m (23 ft) in length.[300]

Plesiosaurs (Plesiosauria)

edit
  • The largest known plesiosauroid was an indeterminate specimen possibly belonging to Aristonectes (identified as cf. Aristonectes sp.), with a body length of 11–11.9 metres (36–39 ft) and body mass of 10.7–13.5 metric tons (11.8–14.9 short tons).[301] Another long plesiosauroid was Albertonectes at 11.2–11.6 metres (37–38 ft).[302] Thalassomedon rivaled it in size, with its length at 10.86–11.6 m (35.6–38.1 ft).[303] Other large plesiosauroids are Styxosaurus and Elasmosaurus. Both reached some more than 10 m (33 ft) in length.[304][305] Hydralmosaurus (previously synonymized with Elasmosaurus and Styxosaurus) reached 9.44 m (31.0 ft) in total body length.[305] In past, Mauisaurus was considered to be more than 8 m (26 ft) in length,[306][305] but later it was determined as nomen dubium.[307]
 
Size estimation of three species of Pliosaurus.

Proterosuchids (Proterosuchidae)

edit

Proterosuchus fergusi is the largest known proterosuchid with a skull length of 47.7 cm (18.8 in) and a possible body length of 3.5–4 m (11–13 ft).[317]

Erythrosuchids (Erythrosuchidae)

edit
 
Life reconstruction of Erythrosuchus africanus

The largest erythrosuchid was Erythrosuchus africanus with a maximum length of 4.75–5 m (15.6–16.4 ft).[318]

Phytosaurs (Phytosauria)

edit

Some of the largest known phytosaurs include Redondasaurus with a length of 6.4 m (21 ft)[319] and Smilosuchus with a length of more than 7 m (23 ft).[320]

Non-crocodylomorph pseudosuchians (Pseudosuchia)

edit
 
Size comparison of Sillosuchus to a human

Crocodiles and close relatives (Crocodylomorpha)

edit
 
Large crocodylomorphs (†Deinosuchus, †Purussaurus, †Gryposuchus, †Euthecodon, †Sarcosuchus, and modern Crocodylus porosus) compared to a human
 
Skull size comparison of large crocodylomorphs (Left to right, †Razanandrongobe, †Machimosaurus, †Barinasuchus, †Sarcosuchus, modern Crocodylus porosus, and †Purussaurus)

Aegyptosuchids (Aegyptosuchidae)

edit

The Late Cretaceous Aegisuchus was originally estimated to reach 15 m (49 ft) in length by the lower estimate and as much as 22 m (72 ft) by the upper estimate although a length of over 15 m is likely a significant overestimate.[330] However, this estimation is likely to be a result of miscalculation, and its length would be only around 3.9 m (13 ft).[331]

Crocodylians (Crocodylia)

edit
  • The largest caiman and likely one of the largest crocodylians was Purussaurus brasiliensis estimated at 11–13 m (36–43 ft).[332] According to another information, maximum estimate measure 11.4 m (37 ft) and almost 7.8 t (8.6 short tons) in length and in weight respectively.[333]

However, a 2022 study estimated a length of 7.6–9.2 metres (25–30 ft) and a mass of 2–6.2 metric tons (2.2–6.8 short tons) using a phylogenetic approach; and a length of 9.2–10 metres (30–33 ft) and mass of 3.9–4.9 metric tons (4.3–5.4 short tons) using a non-phylogenetic approach.[334]

Paralligatorids (Paralligatoridae)

edit

The largest paralligatorid was likely Kansajsuchus, estimated at up to 8 m (26 ft) long.[352]

Tethysuchians (Tethysuchia)

edit
  • Some extinct pholidosaurids reached giant sizes. In the past, Sarcosuchus imperator was believed to be the largest crocodylomorph, with initial estimates proposing a length of 12 m (39 ft) and a weight of 8 t (8.8 short tons).[353] However, recent estimates have now shrunk to a length of 9 to 9.5 m (29.5 to 31.2 ft) and a weight of 3.5 to 4.3 metric tons (3.9 to 4.7 short tons).[354] Related to Sarcosuchus, Chalawan thailandicus could have reached more than 10 m (33 ft) in length,[355] although other estimates suggest 7–8 m (23–26 ft).[340]
  • The largest dyrosaurid was Phosphatosaurus gavialoides, estimated at 9 m (30 ft) in length.[356][340]

Stomatosuchids (Stomatosuchidae)

edit

Stomatosuchus, a stomatosuchid, was estimated at 10 m (33 ft) in length.[357]

Notosuchians (Notosuchia)

edit
  • Some of largest terrestrial notosuchian crocodylomorphs were the Miocene sebecid Barinasuchus, with a skull of 95–110 cm (37–43 in) long, and Eocene sebecid Dentaneosuchus with estimated mandible length of 1 m (3.3 ft).[358][359] Various estimates suggest a possible length of these animals between 3–10 m (9.8–32.8 ft). Using proportion of Stratiotosuchus which is also large to have 47 cm (19 in) long skull,[360] Barinasuchus is estimated to have length at least 6.3 m (21 ft).[358][359]
  • Other huge notosuchian, although only known from fragmentary material, is an early member Razanandrongobe, which skull size may exceeded that of Barinasuchus and overall length may be around 7 m (23 ft).[361][362]

Thalattosuchians (Thalattosuchia)

edit
 
Plesiosuchus compared to a human

Basal crocodylomorphs

edit

Redondavenator was the largest Triassic crocodylomorph ever recorded,[369] with a skull of at least 60 cm (2.0 ft) in length.[370][371] Another huge basal crocodylomorph was Carnufex[369] at 3 m (9.8 ft) long even through that is immature.[372]

Pterosaurs (Pterosauria)

edit
 
Hatzegopteryx (A-B), Arambourgiania (C) and Quetzalcoatlus sp. (D-E)

Choristoderes (Choristodera)

edit

The largest known choristoderan, Kosmodraco dakotensis (previously known as Simoedosaurus dakotensis[384]) is estimated to have had a total length of around 5 m (16 ft).[385][384]

Tanystropheids (Tanystropheidae)

edit
 
Reconstruction of Tanystropheus, note that anatomical features based on smaller species T. longobardicus, while size is based on T. hydroides

Tanystropheus, the largest of all tanystropheids, reached up to 5 m (16 ft) in length.[386]

Thalattosaurs (Thalattosauria)

edit

The largest species of thalattosaur, Miodentosaurus brevis grew to more than 4 m (13 ft) in length.[387] The second largest member of this group is Concavispina with a length of 3.64 m (11.9 ft).[388]

Ichthyosaurs (Ichthyosauria)

edit
 
Shonisaurus popularis (green) and Shastasaurus sikanniensis (red) compared with a human

In April 2018, paleontologists announced the discovery of a previously unknown ichthyosaur that may have reached lengths of 26 m (85 ft) making it one of the largest animals known, rivaling some blue whales in size.[389][390] These remains were later named Ichthyotitan and it has been estimated to reach up to 25 m (82 ft), which makes it the largest ichthyosaur and the largest marine reptile ever.[391] Another large ichthyosaur was the Late Triassic Shastasaurus sikanniensis at 21 m (69 ft) in length[392][393] and 81.5 t (180,000 lb) in weight.[394] Another, larger ichthyosaur was found in 1850 in Aust.[395] Its remains seemed to surpass the measurements of the other ichthyosaur, but the researchers commented that the remains were too fragmentary for a size estimate to be made.[395] Another huge ichthyosaur was Shonisaurus popularis at 15 m (49 ft) in length and 29.7 t (65,000 lb) in weight.[393] The largest Middle Triassic ichthyosaur as well as the largest animal of that time was Cymbospondylus youngorum at 17.65 m (57.9 ft) in length[394] and 44.7 t (99,000 lb) in weight.[394]

Tangasaurids (Tangasauridae)

edit

The largest tangasaurid was Hovasaurus with an estimated snout-vent length of 30–35 cm (12–14 in) and a tail of 60 cm (24 in).[396]

Pareiasaurs (Pareiasauria)

edit

Largest pareiasaurs reached up to 3 m (9.8 ft) in length. Such sizes had Middle Permian Bradysaurus, Embrithosaurus, and Nochelesaurus from South Africa,[397] and the Late Permian Scutosaurus from Russia.[397] The most robust Scutosaurus had 1.16 t (2,600 lb) in body mass.[397]

Captorhinids (Captorhinidae)

edit

The heavy built Moradisaurus grandis, with a length of 2 m (6 ft 7 in),[398] is the largest known captorhinid.[399] The second largest captorhinid was Labidosaurikos with the largest adult skull specimen 28 cm (11 in) long.[400]

Non-avian dinosaurs (Dinosauria)

edit

Sauropodomorphs (Sauropodomorpha)

edit

The largest of non-sauropod sauropodomorphs ("prosauropod") was Euskelosaurus. It reached 12.2 m (40 ft) in length and 2 t (2.2 short tons) in weight.[401] Another huge sauropodomorph Yunnanosaurus youngi reached 13 m (43 ft) long.[402]

Sauropods (Sauropoda)

edit
 
Size comparison of selected giant sauropod dinosaurs (from left to right): Supersaurus, Argentinosaurus, Diplodocus, Mamenchisaurus, and Sauroposeidon
  • A mega-sauropod, Maraapunisaurus fragillimus (previously known as Amphicoelias fragillimus), is a contender for the largest-known dinosaur in history. It has been estimated at 58–60 m (190–197 ft) in maximum length and 122,400 kg (269,800 lb) in weight.[403] Unfortunately, the fossil remains of this dinosaur have been lost.[403] More recently, it was estimated at 35–40 m (115–131 ft) in length and 80–120 t (180,000–260,000 lb) in weight.[404]
  • Known from the incomplete and now disintegrated remains, the Late Cretaceous Bruhathkayosaurus matleyi was an anomalously large sauropod.[405] Informal estimations suggested as huge parameters as 45 m (148 ft) in length and 139–220 t (306,000–485,000 lb) in weight.[406] Some estimation however, suggests 37 m (121 ft) and 95 t (209,000 lb) but it still much heavier than most other sauropods.[406] More recent estimations by Gregory Paul in 2023 has placed its weight range around 110 t (240,000 lb) to a 170 t (370,000 lb). If true, it would make Bruhathkayosaurus the single largest terrestrial animal to have walked the earth and would have rivalled the largest blue whale recorded.[407]
  • BYU 9024, a massive cervical vertebra found in Utah,[408] may belong to a Barosaurus lentus[409][410] or Supersaurus vivianae[411] of a huge size, possibly 45–48 m (148–157 ft) in length and 60–66 t (132,000–146,000 lb) in body mass.[409][412] Supersaurus vivianae itself may have been the longest dinosaur yet discovered as a study of 3 specimens suggested length of 39 m (128 ft) or over 40 m (130 ft).[411]
 
Mounted skeleton of Mamenchisaurus sinocanadorum
 
Reconstructed skeleton of Argentinosaurus

Other huge sauropods include Argentinosaurus, Alamosaurus, and Puertasaurus with estimated lengths of 30–33 m (98–108 ft) and weights of 50–80 t (55–88 short tons).[421] Patagotitan was estimated at 37 m (121 ft) in length[422] and 57 t (63 short tons) in average weight,[423] and was similar in size to Argentinosaurus and Puertasaurus.[424] Giant sauropods like Supersaurus, Sauroposeidon, and Diplodocus probably rivaled them in length but not in weight.[403] Dreadnoughtus was estimated at 49 t (108,000 lb) in weight[423] and 26 m (85 ft) in length, but the most complete individual was immature when it died.[425] Turiasaurus is considered the largest dinosaur from Europe,[426][427] with an estimated length of 30 m (98 ft) and a weight of 50 t (55 short tons).[421][427] However, lower estimates at 21 m (69 ft) and 30 t (66,000 lb) would make it smaller than the Portuguese Lusotitan, which reached 24 m (79 ft) in length and 34 t (75,000 lb) in weight.[428]

Many large sauropods are still unnamed and may rival the current record holders:

  • The "Archbishop", a large brachiosaur that was discovered in 1930. As of October 2023, a scientific paper on the specimen is still in progress.[429]
  • Brachiosaurus nougaredi is yet another large brachiosaur from Early Cretaceous North Africa. The remains have been lost, but the sacrum drawing remains. It suggests a sacrum of almost 1.3 m (4.3 ft) long,[430] making it the largest dinosaur sacrum discovered so far, except those of Argentinosaurus and Apatosaurus.[431]
  • In 2010, the femur of a large sauropod was discovered in France. The femur suggests an animal that grew to immense sizes.[432]

Non-avian theropods (Theropoda)

edit
 
Size comparison of selected giant theropod dinosaurs (from left to right): Spinosaurus , Giganotosaurus, Tyrannosaurus, Mapusaurus, and Carcharodontosaurus

Armoured dinosaurs (Thyreophora)

edit

The largest-known thyreophoran was Ankylosaurus at 9 m (30 ft) in length and 6 tonnes (6.6 short tons) in weight.[443][444] Stegosaurus was also 9 m (30 ft) long[427] but around 5 tonnes (5.5 short tons) tonnes in weight.[citation needed]

Pachycephalosaurs (Pachycephalosauria)

edit

The largest pachycephalosaur was the eponymous Pachycephalosaurus. Previously claimed to be at 7 m (23 ft) in length,[427] it was later estimated about 4.5 metres (14.8 ft) long and a weight of about 450 kilograms (990 lb).[445]

Ceratopsians (Ceratopsia)

edit
 
Size comparison of several members of Ceratopsidae (from left to right): Nasutoceratops, Styracosaurus, Centrosaurus, Pachyrhinosaurus, Triceratops, Pentaceratops, Chasmosaurus, and Anchiceratops

The largest ceratopsian known is Triceratops horridus, along with the closely related Eotriceratops xerinsularis both with estimated lengths of 9 m (30 ft). Pentaceratops and several other ceratopsians rival them in size.[446] Titanoceratops had one of the longest skull of any land animal, at 2.65 m (8.7 ft) long.[447]

Ornithopods (Ornithopoda)

edit
 
From left to right: Shantungosaurus giganteus, Magnapaulia laticaudus, Edmontosaurus annectens, Saurolophus angustirostris, Hypsibema missouriensis, Charonosaurus jiayinensis, Iguanodon bernissartensis

Birds (Aves)

edit
 
From left to right: a human, †Anomalopteryx didiformus, †Megalapteryx didinus, †Euryapteryx curtus, Casuarius casuarius, †Pachyornis elephantopus, Rhea americana, Struthio camelus, †Dinornis novaezealandiae, †Aepyornis maximus

The largest bird in the fossil record may be the extinct elephant bird species Aepyornis maximus of Madagascar, whose closest living relative is the kiwi. Giant elephant birds exceeded 2.3 metres (7.5 ft) in height, and average a mass of 850 kg (1,870 lb)[467]

The largest fowl was the mihirung Dromornis stirtoni of Australia. It exceeded 2.7 m (8.9 ft) in height, and average a mass of 500 kilograms (1,100 lb)[468]

Another contender is Brontornis burmeisteri, an extinct flightless bird from South America which reached a weight of 319 kg (703 lb) and a height of approximately 2.8 metres (9.2 ft).[469]

The tallest recorded bird was Pachystruthio dmanisensis, a relative of the ostrich. This particular species of bird stood at 3.5 metres (11.5 ft) tall and average a mass of 450 kg (990 lb)[470]

The largest known flightless neoave was the terror bird Paraphysornis brasiliensis of South America, the Brazilian terror bird exceeded 240 kg (530 lb) in mass,[471]

Table of heaviest extinct bird species

edit
Rank Common Name Binomial Name Average mass
kg (lb)
1 Aepyornis maximus 850 kg (1,870 lb)[467]
2 Dromornis stirtoni 500 kg (1,100 lb)[468]
3 Pachystruthio dmanisensis 450 kg (990 lb)[470]
4 Brontornis burmeisteri 319 kg (703 lb)[469]
5 Dromornis planei 300 kg (660 lb)[468]
6 Genyornis newtoni 275 kg (606 lb)[468]
7 East Asian ostrich Struthio anderssoni 270 kg (600 lb)[472]
8 Dromornis murrayi 250 kg (550 lb)[473]
9 Paraphysornis brasilienis 240 kg (530 lb)[471]
10 Aepyornis hildebrandti 235 kg (518 lb)[467]
11 Dromornis australis 220 kg (490 lb)[468]
12 Gastornis gigantea 200 kg (440 lb)[468]
13 Ilbandornis lawsoni 175 kg (386 lb)[468]
14 Devincenzia pozzi 161 kg (355 lb)[474]
15 Ilbandornis woodburnei 150 kg (330 lb)[468]
16 Titanis walleri 150 kg (330 lb)[475]
17 Gastornis parisiensis 135 kg (298 lb)[476]
18 South Island giant moa Dinornis robustus 125 kg (276 lb)[477]
19 Gargantuavis philoinos 120 kg (260 lb)[478]
20 Palaeeudyptes klekowskii 116 kg (256 lb)[479]
21 North Island giant moa Dinornis novaezealandiae 100 kg (220 lb)[477]
22 Phorusrhacos longissmus 94 kg (207 lb)[469]
23 Mullerornis modestus 80 kg (180 lb)[467]
24 Heavy-footed moa Pachyornis elephantopus 80 kg (180 lb)[477]
25 Giant Teratorn Argentavis magnificens 71 kg (157 lb)[480]
26 Barawertornis tedfordi 70 kg (150 lb)[468]
27 Mesembriornis incertus 70 kg (150 lb)[481]
28 Crested moa Pachyornis australis 67 kg (148 lb)[477]
29 Eastern moa Emeus crassus 58 kg (128 lb)[477]
30 Broad-billed moa Euryapteryx curtus 47.5 kg (105 lb)[477]
31 Upland moa Megalapteryx didinus 40 kg (88 lb)[477]
32 Bush moa Anomalopteryx didiformis 40 kg (88 lb)[477]
33 Sylviornis neocaledoniae 30.5 kg (67 lb)[481]
34 Eremopezus eocaenus 30 kg (66 lb)[482]
35 Mantell's moa Pachyornis geranoides 27 kg (60 lb)[477]
36 Patagornis marshi 23 kg (51 lb)[481]
37 Teratornis merriami 22.5 kg (50 lb)[483]
38 Pelagornis sandersi 21.7 kg (48 lb)[484]
39 Llallawavis scagliai 18 kg (40 lb)[485]
40 Giant darter Giganhinga kiyuensis 17.7 kg (39 lb)[486]
41 Giant swan Cygnus falconeri 16 kg (35 lb)[487]
42 Leptoptilos robustus 16 kg (35 lb)[488]
43 Haast's eagle Hieraaetus moorei 12 kg (26 lb)[477]
44 Dodo Raphus cucullatus 10.2 kg (22 lb)[489]
45 South Island adzebill Aptornis defossor 10 kg (22 lb)[477]
46 South Island goose Cnemiornis calcitrans 10 kg (22 lb)[477]
47 North Island adzebill Aptornis otidiformis 8 kg (18 lb)[477]
48 North Island goose Cnemiornis gracilis 8 kg (18 lb)[477]
49 Hercules parrot Heracles inexpectatus 7 kg (15 lb)[490]
50 Spectacled cormorant Phalacrocorax perspicillatus 6.4 kg (14 lb)[491]

Enantiornitheans (Enantiornithes)

edit

One of the largest enantiornitheans was Enantiornis,[492] with a length in life of around 78.5 cm (30.9 in), hip height of 34 cm (13 in), weight of 6.75 kg (14.9 lb),[493] and wingspan comparable to some of the modern gulls, around 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in).[492] Gurilynia was the largest Mesozoic bird from Mongolia, with a length of 53 cm (21 in), hip height of 23.2 cm (9.1 in), and weight of 2.1 kg (4.6 lb).[493]

Avisauridae

edit
 
Two Mirarce sitting on a head of ceratopsian dinosaur

The Late Cretaceous Avisaurus was almost as large as Enantiornis. It had a wingspan around 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in),[492] a length of 72 cm (28 in), hip height of 31.5 cm (12.4 in), and weight of 5.1 kg (11 lb).[493] Even larger could be the Soroavisaurus. One tibiotarsus (PVL-4033) indicates an animal with a length of 80 cm (31 in), hip height of 35 cm (14 in), and weight of 7.25 kg (16.0 lb).[493] However, according to Walker and Dyke (2009) which considered PVL-4033 as Martinavis sp., its tibiotarsus length is 85.6 mm (3.37 in),[494] much shorter than that of Lectavis (156 mm (6.1 in) tibiotarsus)[495] which the same book estimated a length of 41 cm (16 in), hip height of 30 cm (12 in), and weight of 1.15 kg (2.5 lb).[493] Mirarce was comparable in size to a turkey, much larger than most of other enantiornitheans.[496]

Pengornithidae

edit

One of the biggest Early Cretaceous enantiornithine bird was Pengornis at 50 cm (1.6 ft) in length[427] and skull length of 54.7 mm (2.15 in).[497]

Gargantuaviidae

edit

Gargantuavis is the largest known bird of the Mesozoic, a size ranging between the cassowary and the ostrich, and a mass of 140 kg (310 lb) like modern ostriches.[498] In 2019 specimens MDE A-08 and IVPP-V12325 were measured at 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) in length, 1.3 m (4 ft 3 in) in hip height, and 120 kg (260 lb) in weight.[478]

Dromornithiformes

edit
 
A cast of Dromornis stirtoni from Australia

The largest dromornithid was Dromornis stirtoni over 3 m (9.8 ft) tall[499] and 528–584 kg (1,164–1,287 lb) in mass for males.[500]

Gastornid (Gastornithiformes)

edit

Large individuals of Gastornis reached up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in height.[501] Weight of Gastornis ranges from 100 kg (220 lb) to 156 kg (344 lb) and sometimes to 180 kg (400 lb) for European specimens and from 160 kg (350 lb) to 229 kg (505 lb) for North American.[502][476][503]

Waterfowl (Anseriformes)

edit
 
Reconstruction of Garganornis ballmanni

Possibly flightless, the Miocene Garganornis ballmanni was larger than any extant members of Anseriformes, with 15.3–22.3 kg (34–49 lb) in body mass.[504] Another huge anseriform was the flightless New Zealand goose (Cnemiornis). It reached 15–18 kg (33–40 lb), approaching in size to small species of moa.[505]

Swans (Cygnini)

edit

The largest known swan was the Pleistocene giant swan (Cygnus falconeri), which reached a bill-to-tail length of about 190–210 cm (75–83 in),[506] a weight of around 16 kg (35 lb), and a wingspan of 3 m (9.8 ft).[487][507][508] The New Zealand swan (Cygnus sumnerensis) weighed up to 10 kg (22 lb), compared to the related extant black swan at only 6 kg (13 lb).[509] The large marine swan Annakacygna yoshiiensis from the Miocene of Japan far exceeded the extant mute swan in both size and weight.[510]

Anatinae

edit

Finsch's duck (Chenonetta finschi) reached 1–2 kg (2.2–4.4 lb) in weight, surpassing related modern Australian wood duck (800 g (1.8 lb)).[511]

Pelicans, ibises and allies (Pelecaniformes)

edit

Storks and allies (Ciconiiformes)

edit
 
Leptoptilos robustus compared in size to a human

The largest known of Ciconiiformes was Leptoptilos robustus, standing 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) tall and weighing an estimated 16 kg (35 lb).[514][488] Ciconia maltha is a relatively large species of Ciconia, with a height of over 5 feet (1.5 meters) and a wingspan up to 10 feet (3.0 meters) across.[515]

Cranes (Gruiformes)

edit

A large true crane (Gruinae) from the late Miocene (Tortonian) of Germany was equal in size to the biggest extant cranes and resembled the long-beaked Siberian crane (Leucogeranus leucogeranus).[516]

Shorebirds (Charadriiformes)

edit

Miomancalla howardi was the largest known charadriiform of all time, weighing approximately 0.6 kg (1.3 lb) more than the second-largest member, the great auk (Pinguinus impennis).[517]

Hesperornithines (Hesperornithes)

edit

The largest known of the hesperornithines was Canadaga arctica at 2.2 m (7 ft 3 in) long.[518]

New World vultures (Cathartiformes)

edit
 
A skeleton of Teratornis

One of the heaviest flying birds of all time was Argentavis, a Miocene teratornithid. The immense bird had a wingspan estimated up to 5.09–6.5 m (16.7–21.3 ft)[480][519] and a weight up to 70 to 72 kg (154 to 159 lb).[520][480] Argentavis's humerus was only slightly shorter than an entire human arm.[521] Another huge teratorn was Aiolornis, with a wingspan of around 5 m (16 ft).[522] The Pleistocene Teratornis merriami reached 13.7 kg (30 lb) and 2.94–3.38 m (9.6–11.1 ft) in wingspan, with lower size estimates still exceeding the largest specimens of California condor (Gymnogyps californianus).[523]

Seriemas and allies (Cariamiformes)

edit
 
Size comparison of Kelenken and a human

The largest known-ever Cariamiforme and largest phorusrhacid or "terror bird" (highly predatory, flightless birds of America) was Brontornis, which was about 175 cm (69 in) tall at the shoulder, could raise its head 2.8 m (9 ft 2 in) above the ground and could have weighed as much as 400 kg (880 lb).[524] The immense phorusrhacid Kelenken stood 3 m (9.8 ft) tall[525][526] with a skull 716 mm (28.2 in) long (460 mm (18 in) of which was beak), had the largest head of any known bird.[525] South American Phorusrhacos stood 2.4-2.7 m (7.9-8.8 ft) tall, and weighed nearly 130 kilograms (290 lb), as much as a male ostrich.[527][528] The largest North American phorusrhacid was Titanis, which reached a height of approximately 2.5 m (8.2 ft),[529] slightly taller than an African forest elephant.

Accipitriforms (Accipitriformes)

edit
 
Haast's eagle, the largest bird of prey, attacking moa

The largest known bird of prey ever was the enormous Haast's eagle (Hieraaetus moorei), with a wingspan of 2.6 to 3 m (8 ft 6 in to 9 ft 10 in), relatively short for their size.[530][531] Total length was probably up to 1.4 m (4 ft 7 in) in female[532] and they weighed about 10 to 15 kg (22 to 33 lb).[533] Another giant extinct hawk was Titanohierax about 7.3 kg (16 lb) that lived in the Antilles and The Bahamas, where it was among the top predators.[534] An unnamed late Quaternary eagle from Hispaniola could be 15–30% larger than the modern golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos).[535] Some extinct species of Buteogallus surpassed their extant relatives in size. Buteogallus borrasi was about 33% larger than the modern great black hawk (B. urubitinga).[536] B. daggetti, also known as "walking eagle", was around 40% larger than the savanna hawk (B. meridionalis).[537] Eyles's harrier (Circus eylesi) from the Pleistocene-Holocene of New Zealand was more than twice heavier than the extant C. approximans.[538]

Moa (Dinornithiformes)

edit

The tallest known bird was the South Island giant moa (Dinornis robustus), part of the moa family of New Zealand that went extinct about 500 years ago. It stood up to 3.7 m (12 ft) tall,[539] and weighed approximately half as much as a large elephant bird due to its comparatively slender frame.[540]

Tinamous (Tinamiformes)

edit

MPLK-03, a tinamou specimen that existed during the Late Pleistocene in Argentina, possibly belongs to the modern genus Eudromia and surpacces extant E. elegans and E. formosa in size by 2.2–8% and 6–14%, respectively.[541]

Elephant birds (Aepyornithiformes)

edit

The largest bird in the fossil record may be the extinct elephant birds (Vorombe, Aepyornis) of Madagascar, which were related to the ostrich. They exceeded 3 m (9.8 ft) in height and 500 kilograms (1,100 lb) in weight.[540]

Ostriches (Struthioniformes)

edit

With 450 kg (990 lb) in body mass, Pachystruthio dmanisensis from the lower Pleistocene of Crimea was the largest bird ever recorded in Europe. Despite its giant size, it was a good runner.[542] A possible specimen of Pachystruthio from the lower Pleistocene of Hebei Province (China) was about 300 kg (660 lb) in weight, twice heavier than the common ostrich (Struthio camelus).[543] Remains of the massive Asian ostrich (Struthio asiaticus) from the Pliocene[544] indicate a size 20% bigger than adult male of the extant Struthio camelus.[545]

Pigeons and doves (Columbiformes)

edit
 
Dodo (Raphus cucullatus)

The largest pigeon relative known was the dodo (Raphus cucullatus), possibly exceeding 1 m (3.3 ft) in height and weighing as much as 28 kg (62 lb), although recent estimates have indicated that an average wild dodo weighed much less at approximately 10.2 kg (22 lb).[546][547]

Pheasants, turkeys, gamebirds and allies (Galliformes)

edit

The largest known of the Galliformes was likely the giant malleefowl, which could reach 7 kg (15 lb) in weight.[548]

Songbirds (Passeriformes)

edit

The largest known songbird is the extinct giant grosbeak (Chloridops regiskongi) at 280 mm (11 in) long.[citation needed]

Cormorants and allies (Suliformes)

edit
 
The spectacled cormorant or Pallas's Cormorant (Phalacrocorax perspicillatus)
  • The largest known cormorant was the spectacled cormorant of the North Pacific (Phalacrocorax perspicillatus), which became extinct around 1850 and averaged around 6.4 kg (14 lb) and 1.15 m (3 ft 9 in).[491]
  • The largest known darter was Giganhinga with estimated weight about 17.7 kg (39 lb),[486] earlier study even claims 25.7 kg (57 lb).[549]
  • The largest known plotopterid, penguin-like flightless bird was Copepteryx titan that is known from 22 cm (8.7 in) long femur, almost twice as long as that of emperor penguin.[550]

Grebes (Podicipediformes)

edit

The largest known grebe, the Atitlán grebe (Podylimbus gigas), reached a length of about 46–50 centimetres (18–20 in).[551]

Bony-toothed birds (Odontopterygiformes)

edit

The largest known of the Odontopterygiformes— a group which has been variously allied with Procellariiformes, Pelecaniformes and Anseriformes and the largest flying birds of all time other than Argentavis were the huge Pelagornis, Cyphornis, Dasornis, Gigantornis and Osteodontornis.[citation needed] They had a wingspan of 5.5–6 m (18–20 ft) and stood about 1.2 m (3 ft 11 in) tall.[citation needed] Exact size estimates and judging which one was largest are not yet possible for these birds, as their bones were extremely thin-walled, light and fragile, and thus most are only known from very incomplete remains.[citation needed]

Woodpeckers and allies (Piciformes)

edit

The largest known woodpecker is the possibly extinct imperial woodpecker (Campephilus imperialis) with a total length of about 56–60 cm (22–24 in).[552]

Parrots (Psittaciformes)

edit

The largest known parrot is the extinct Heracles inexpectatus with a length of about 1 meter (3.3 feet).[553]

Penguins (Sphenisciformes)

edit
 
Size comparison of the giant penguin Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi

One of the heaviest penguins ever known is Kumimanu fordycei, with a body mass estimate of 148 to 159.7 kg (326 to 352 lb), derived from humerus measurements.[554] Another example is Palaeeudyptes klekowskii of Antarctica, with a bill-to-tail length estimated at 2.02 m (6 ft 8 in) and an estimated body weight of 84.2 kg (186 lb), slightly smaller than previous estimates.[554][555] The Eocene Anthropornis nordenskjoeldi is comparable in size, and was once estimated to reach lengths of 2.05 m (6 ft 9 in) and a weight of 108 kg (238 lb).[556] However, recent estimation from humerus measurements put A. nordenskjoeldi more in the range of 67 kg (148 lb) in weight.[554] Other large penguins include the New Zealand giant penguin (Pachydyptes pondeorsus) weighing around 65.4 to 94.6 kg (144 to 209 lb), and Icadyptes salasi at 52.8 to 73.0 kg (116.4 to 160.9 lb).[557][554]

Owls (Strigiformes)

edit

The largest known owl of all time was the Cuban Ornimegalonyx at 1,100 mm (43.3 in) tall probably exceeding 9 kg (20 lb).[558]

Amphibians (Amphibia)

edit

The largest known amphibian of all time was the 9.1 m (30 ft) long temnospondyl Prionosuchus.[559]

Lissamphibians (Lissamphibia)

edit

Frogs and toads (Anura)

edit
 
Size comparison of Beelzebufo

The largest known frog ever was an as yet unnamed Eocene species that was about 58–59-centimetre-long (22.8–23.2 in).[560] The Late Cretaceous Beelzebufo grew to at least 23.2 cm (9.1 in) (snout-vent length), which is around the size of a modern African bullfrog.[561]

Salamanders, newts and allies (Urodela)

edit
 
Andrias matthewi size comparison

Diadectomorphs (Diadectomorpha)

edit
 
Size comparison of Diadectes

The largest known diacectid, herbivorous Diadectes, was a heavily built animal, up to 3 m (9.8 ft) long, with thick vertebrae and ribs.[564][565]

Anthracosauria

edit

The largest known anthracosaur was Anthracosaurus, with skull about 40 cm (16 in) in length.[566]

Embolomeri

edit
 
Restoration of Pholiderpeton

The longest member of this group was Eogyrinus attheyi, species sometimes placed under genus Pholiderpeton.[567] Its skull had length about 41 cm (16 in).[568]

Temnospondyls (Temnospondyli)

edit
 
Scale diagram of small and large specimens of Prionosuchus

The largest known temnospondyl amphibian is Prionosuchus, which grew to lengths of 9 m (30 ft).[559] Another huge temnospondyl was Mastodonsaurus giganteus at 6 m (20 ft) long.[569] Unnamed species of temnospondyl from Lesotho is partial, but possible body length estimation is 7 m (23 ft).[570]

Fishes (Pisces)

edit

Fishes are a paraphyletic group of non-tetrapod vertebrates.

Jawless fish (Agnatha)

edit

Conodonts (Conodonta)

edit

Iowagnathus grandis is estimated to have length over 50 cm (1.6 ft).[571]

Heterostracans (Heterostraci)

edit

Some members of Psammosteidae such as Obruchevia and Tartuosteus are estimated to reached up to 2 m (6.6 ft).[572]

Thelodonts (Thelodonti)

edit

Although known from partial materials, Thelodus parvidens (=T. macintoshi) is estimated to reached up to 1 m (3.3 ft).[573]

Cephalaspidomorphs (Cephalaspidomorphi)

edit

A species of Parameteoraspis reached up to 1 m (3.3 ft).[574]

Spiny sharks (Acanthodii)

edit

The largest of the now-extinct Acanthodii was Xylacanthus grandis, an ischnacanthiform based on a ~35 cm (14 in) long jaw bone. Based on the proportions of its relative Ischnacanthus, X. grandis had an estimated total length of 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in).[575]

Placoderms (Placodermi)

edit
 
Cast of a Dunkleosteus skull

The largest known placoderm was the giant predatory Dunkleosteus. The largest and most well known species was D. terrelli, various estimate put its length around 4.1–10 m (13.5–32.8 ft) in length and 1–4 t (1.1–4.4 short tons) in weight.[576] Another large placoderm, Titanichthys, may have rivaled it in size.[577] Titanichthys is estimated to have a length around 4.1–7.5 m (13–25 ft)[576][578][579][580]

Cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes)

edit

Mackerel sharks (Lamniformes)

edit
 
How estimates for the size of Megalodon using different assumptions (brown) compare with the whale shark (blue), great white shark (yellow), and human (black) for scale
  • Species in the extinct genus Otodus were huge. A giant shark, Otodus megalodon[581][582][583] is by far the biggest mackerel shark ever known.[584] Most estimates of megalodon's size extrapolate from teeth, with maximum length estimates up to 10.6–20 m (35–66 ft)[582][583][585] and average length estimates of 10.5 m (34 ft).[586][587] Due to fragmentary remains, there have been many contradictory size estimates for megalodon, as they can only be drawn from fossil teeth and vertebrae.[588]: 87 [589] Mature male megalodon may have had a body mass of 12.6 to 33.9 metric tons (13.9 to 37.4 short tons), and mature females may have been 27.4 to 59.4 metric tons (30.2 to 65.5 short tons), assuming that males could range in length from 10.5 to 14.3 m (34 to 47 ft) and females 13.3 to 17 m (44 to 56 ft).[590] Related to megalodon, Otodus angustidens and O. chubutensis reached the large sizes too. Each was estimated at 9.3 m (31 ft)[591] and 12.2 m (40 ft),[592] respectively.
  • Other giant mackerel sharks were Pseudoscapanorhynchidae from the Cretaceous period. Cretodus had a size range of 9–11 m (30–36 ft) (for C. crassidens),[593] Leptostyrax reached lengths of 6.3–8.3 m (21–27 ft).[594]
  • The Cenozoic Parotodus reached up to 7.6 m (25 ft) in length.[595]
  • The heaviest thresher shark was likely Alopias grandis. It was similar in size or even larger than the extant great white shark and probably did not have an elongated dorsal tail, characteristic of modern relatives.[596]

Ground sharks (Carcharhiniformes)

edit

The Cenozoic Hemipristis serra was considerably larger than its modern-day relatives and had much larger teeth. Its total length is estimated to be at 6 metres (20 ft) long.[597]

Hybodonts (Hybodontiformes)

edit

One of the largest hybodontiforms was the Jurassic Asteracanthus with body length of up to 3 m (9.8 ft).[598] Crassodus reifi is known from less materials, however it is estimated that reached over 3 m (9.8 ft).[599]

Ctenacanthiformes

edit

The largest member of ctenacanthiformes is Saivodus striatus with estimated length around 6–9 m (20–30 ft).[600][576]

Skates and allies (Rajiformes)

edit

The giant sclerorhynchid Onchopristis reached about 4.25 m (13.9 ft) in length.[601]

Eugeneodont (Eugeneodontida)

edit
 
Size comparation of Helicoprion

The largest known eugeneodont is an as-yet unnamed species of Helicoprion discovered in Idaho. The specimens suggest an animal that possibly exceeded 12 m (39 ft) in length.[602] Another fairly large eugeneodont is Parahelicoprion. Being more slimmer than Helicoprion, it reached nearly the same size,[602] possibly up to 12 m (39 ft) in length.[603] Both had the largest sizes among the animals of Paleozoic era.[604][603]

Lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii)

edit

Coelacanths (Actinistia)

edit
 
Size estimation of Mawsonia gigas

The largest coelacanth is Cretaceous Mawsonia gigas with estimated total length up to 5.3 m (17 ft). Jurassic Trachymetopon may have reached size close to that, about 5 m (16 ft).[605] An undetermined mawsoniid from the Maastrichtian deposits of Morocco probably reached 3.65–5.52 m (12.0–18.1 ft) in length.[606][605]

Lungfish (Dipnoi)

edit

Cretaceous Ceratodus sp. from Western Interior is estimated to had a length around 4 m (13 ft).[607]

Stem-tetrapods (Tetrapodomorpha)

edit
 
Reconstruction of Rhizodus
 
Reconstruction of Hyneria

Ray-finned fish (Actinopterygii)

edit

Acipenseriformes

edit

Pachycormiformes

edit
 
Largest specimen of Leedsichthys compared to human and other pachycormid fish

The largest known ray-finned fish and largest bony fish of all time was the pachycormid, Leedsichthys problematicus, at around 16.5 m (54 ft) long.[614] Earlier estimates have had claims of larger individuals with lengths over 27 m (89 ft).[615][616]

Ichthyodectiformes

edit
 
Comparation of some ichthyodectiforms: Xiphactinus (1), Ichthyodectes (2), Cladocyclus (3), Chirocentrites (4)

The largest known of ichthyodectiform fish was Xiphactinus, which measured up to 6.1 m (20 ft) long.[617] Ichthyodectes reached 3 m (9.8 ft) long, twice lesser than Xiphactinus.[618]

Pycnodontiformes

edit

The largest known pycnodontiform was Gyrodus circularis, with length up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in).[619]

Bichirs (Polypteriformes)

edit

The Late Cretaceous Bawitius was likely the largest bichir of all time. It reached up to 3 m (9.8 ft) in length.[620]

Opahes, ribbonfishes, oarfishes and allies (Lampriformes)

edit

Megalampris was likely the largest fossil opah. This fish was around 4 m (13 ft) in length when alive, which is twice the length of the largest living opah species, Lampris guttatus.[621]

Salmon and trout (Salmoniformes)

edit

The largest salmon was Oncorhynchus rastrosus, varying in size from 1.9 m (6 ft 3 in) and 177 kg (390 lb)[622] to 2.4 m (7 ft 10 in) and 200 kg (440 lb).[623][622]

Pufferfishes, boxfishes, triggerfishes, ocean sunfishes and allies (Tetraodontiformes)

edit

Lizardfishes (Aulopiformes)

edit

The largest lizardfish was Stratodus which could reach length of 5 m (16 ft).[627]

Echinoderms (Echinodermata)

edit

Crinozoa

edit
 
Fossil of Seirocrinus subangularis

Sea lilies (Crinoidea)

edit

Longest stem of Seirocrinus subangularis reached over 26 m (85 ft).[628]

Asterozoa

edit

Starfish (Asteroidea)

edit

Helianthaster from Hunsrück Slate had radius about 25 cm (9.8 in).[629]

Graptolites (Graptolithina)

edit

The longest known graptoloid graptolite is Stimulograptus halli at 1.45 m (4.8 ft). It found in Silurian deposits of the United Kingdom.[630]

Kinorhynchs (Kinorhyncha)

edit

Cambrian kinorhynchs from Qingjiang biota, also known as "mud dragons", reached 4 cm (1.6 in) in length, much larger than extant relatives that grow only a few millimeters in length.[631][632]

Arthropods (Arthropoda)

edit

Dinocaridida

edit

Gilled lobopodians

edit
 
Size estimation of Omnidens.

Based on the findings of mouthparts, the Cambrian gilled lobopodian Omnidens amplus is estimated to have been 1.5 metres (4.9 ft).[633] It is also known as the largest Cambrian animal known to exist.[633]

Radiodont (Radiodonta)

edit
 
Scaled diagram of Aegirocassis

The largest known radiodont is Aegirocassis benmoulai, estimated to have been at least 2 m (6 ft 7 in) long.[634][635]

Chelicerata

edit

Sea spiders (Pycnogonida)

edit

The largest fossil sea spider is Palaeoisopus problematicus with legspan about 32 cm (13 in).[636]

Horseshoe crabs and allies (Xiphosura)

edit

Chasmataspidids (Chasmataspidida)

edit
 
Size comparison of the chasmataspidids

The largest chasmataspidids were the Ordovician Hoplitaspis at 29 cm (11 in) in length and similar in size range Chasmataspis.[641]

Eurypterids (Eurypterida)

edit
 
Size comparison of the largest known eurypterids

Arachnids (Arachnida)

edit

Artiopods (Artiopoda)

edit

Retifacies probably reached up to 55 cm (22 in).[656] Tegopelte is another one example of large non-trilobite artiopod, reached 280 mm (11 in) long[657] and was the largest of the Burgess Shale bilaterians, surpassing all other benthic organisms by at least twice.[657]

Trilobites (Trilobita)

edit

Some of trilobites exceeded 60 cm (24 in) in length. A nearly complete specimen of Isotelus rex from Manitoba attained a length over 70 cm (28 in), and an Ogyginus forteyi from Portugal was almost as long. Fragments of trilobites suggest even larger record sizes. An isolated pygidium of Hungioides bohemicus implies that the full animal was 90 cm (35 in) long.[658]

Myriapods (Myriapoda)

edit
 
A life-size reconstruction of Arthropleura

The largest known myriapod by far was Arthropleura. Measuring 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in) long[659] and 50 centimetres (20 in) wide.[660] Some specimens could have been even larger, up to 2.63 metres (8 ft 8 in) in length and 50 kilograms (110 lb) in weight.[661][662]

Non-hexapod crustaceans (Crustacea)

edit

Cycloids (Cyclida)

edit

The largest cyclid was Opolanka decorosa, the Late Triassic Halicyne-like cycloid which reached over 6 cm (2.4 in) across the carapace.[663]

Remipedes (Remipedia)

edit

Tesnusocaris had body length at least 9.5 cm (3.7 in),[664] larger than every living remipedes which could reach up to 4.5 cm (1.8 in).[665]

Insects (Insecta)

edit

Sawflies, wasps, bees, ants and allies (Hymenoptera)

edit
 
Titanomyrma with rufous hummingbird for scale

Fleas (Siphonaptera)

edit

The largest known in Siphonaptera was probably Pseudopulex magnus, growing to 0.90 in (22.8 mm) in length.[670]

Earwigs (Dermaptera)

edit
 
Labidura herculeana (St. Helena earwig) specimen

Extinct as recently as after 1967[671][672] and also submitted as the Holocene subfossils,[673] the Saint Helena giant earwig (Labidura herculeana, with synonym Labidura loveridgei) reached 84 mm (3.3 in) in length including forceps 34 mm (1.3 in) long.[671]

Chresmodidae

edit

Chresmodidae had long specialized legs like of the modern Gerridae family. One of the Chresmodidae, Chresmoda obscura, could have reached a size of about 19 centimetres (7.5 in).[674]

Beetles (Coleoptera)

edit

One of the largest known fossil beetles in the superfamily Scarabaeoidea is Protognathinus spielbergi. It had total length including mandibles about 5.5 centimetres (2.2 in).[675] The largest fossil scarabaeid was Oryctoantiquus borealis with an estimated body length of 5 centimetres (2.0 in).[676]

Titanopterans (Titanoptera)

edit
 
Reconstruction of Gigatitan vulgaris

Related to modern orthopterans, titanopterans from the Triassic period were much larger. The wingspan of Gigatitan vulgaris was up to 40 centimetres (16 in).[677] Clatrotitan andersoni also reached a huge size, having a forewing of 13.8 centimetres (5.4 in) long.[678]

edit

Makarkinia adamsi from the Crato Formation is estimated to have the longest forewings of any neuropteran species, estimated at 160 mm (6.3 in).[679]

Cockroaches, termites, mantises and allies (Dictyoptera)

edit

Dragonflies, damselflies and griffinflies (Odonatoptera)

edit
 
Reconstruction of Meganeura

Mayflies (Ephemeroptera)

edit

Palaeodictyoptera

edit

The largest known palaeodictyopteran was Mazothairos, with an estimated wingspan of up to 560 mm (22 in).[692] If subcircular wing known from Piesberg Quarry belongs to palaeodictyopteran, it possibly had single wing length at least 30 cm (12 in).[693]

Archaeognatha (jumping bristletails) and other wingless primitive insects

edit
  • The largest known machilid is Triassic Gigamachilis, with 40 millimetres (1.6 in) body length not counting the length of the filament, and estimated total length about 80 millimetres (3.1 in).[694]
  • The largest specimens of the extinct suborder Monura reached 30 millimetres (1.2 in) or more, not counting the length of the filament.[695]
  • Although Ramsdelepidion was once considered as 60 millimetres (2.4 in)-long silverfish,[696] it was later considered that classification is uncertain and just treated as stem group insect.[697]
  • Wingless early insect Carbotriplura had body length about 103 millimetres (4.1 in) without tail filaments.[698]

Chaetognatha

edit

The Cambrian Timorebestia koprii lived 518 million years ago and was a relative of the extant arrow worms living in today's oceans. Growing to lengths of 30 cm, including the antennae, they were much larger and massive than modern forms. Before the evolution of nektonic panarthropods, jawed vertebrates and cephalopods, this group of large predatory gnathiferans dominated the top of the food chain.[699][700]

Ringed worms (Annelida)

edit

Websteroprion is the largest known fossil eunicidan annelid, with estimated length ranges 0.42–8.3 m (1 ft 5 in – 27 ft 3 in), however comparison with closely related extant taxa indicates length around 1–2 m (3 ft 3 in – 6 ft 7 in).[701] It also had the biggest scolecodonts of any prehistoric polychaete, up to 13.2 mm (0.52 in) in length and possibly larger.[701]

Molluscs (Mollusca)

edit

Snails and slugs (Gastropoda)

edit
 
Campanile giganteum shell

Bivalves (Bivalvia)

edit

Tusk shells (Scaphopoda)

edit

Cephalopods (Cephalopoda)

edit
 
Parapuzosia seppenradensis shell

Nautiloids (Nautiloidea)

edit

The largest and longest known of nautiloids was Endoceras giganteum with a shell length of 5.73 m (18.8 ft). There is a record of individual whose shell length had reached 9.14 m (30.0 ft), but it is doubtful.[713]

Ammonites (Ammonoidea)

edit

The largest known ammonite was Parapuzosia seppenradensis.[714] A partial fossil specimen found in Germany had a shell diameter of 1.95 m (6 ft 5 in), but the living chamber was incomplete, so the estimated shell diameter was probably about 3.5 m (11 ft) and weighed about 705 kg (1,554 lb) when it was alive.[715] However, later study estimates shell diameter up to around 2 m (6 ft 7 in).[716]

Belemnites (Belemnoidea)

edit

The largest known belemnite was Megateuthis gigantea, reaching about 50 and 700 mm (2.0 and 27.6 in) in maximum diameter and length of rostrum, respectively.[717]

Squids, octopuses, cuttlefishes and allies (Neocoleoidea)

edit

Brachiopods (Brachiopoda)

edit
 
Gigantoproductus giganteus

The largest brachiopod ever evolved was Striatifera striata from Akkermanovka Quarry, Russia, with height up to 0.5 metres (1 ft 8 in).[721] Another huge brachiopod was the Carboniferous Gigantoproductus giganteus, with shell width from 30 cm (12 in)[722] to over 35 centimetres (14 in).[711][723] Titanaria costellata had large and long shell 35–36 cm (14–14 in) in width, nearly as large as Gigantoproductus.[724]

Hyoliths (Hyolitha)

edit

The largest hyolith is Macrotheca almgreeni, with length about 50 centimetres (20 in).[711][725]

Cnidarians (Cnidaria)

edit

Jellyfishes and allies (Medusozoa)

edit

The largest fossil jellyfish is Cambrian Cordubia gigantea, with diameter of 88 centimetres (35 in).[726] Specimens from the Cambrian of Wisconsin reached 70 cm (28 in) in length.[727]

Vendobionts (Vendobionta)

edit

Petalonamids (Petalonamae)

edit
 
A large specimen of Trepassia wardae

Longest specimens of Trepassia wardae (also known as Charnia wardi) reached 185 cm (73 in) in length.[728] Charnia masoni is known from specimens as small as only 1 cm (0.39 in), up to the largest specimens of 66 cm (26 in) in length.[729]

Proarticulata

edit

Dickinsonia tenuis reached 1.4 m (4.6 ft) in length, that makes it one of the largest precambrian organisms.[730][731]

Sponges (Porifera)

edit

The largest known Permian sponge Gigantospongia had diameter up to 2.5 metres (8 ft 2 in).[732]

See also

edit

References

edit
  1. ^ Carbone, Chris; Teacher, Amber; Rowcliffe, J (2007). "The Costs of Carnivory". PLOS Biology. 5 (2): e22. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050022. PMC 1769424. PMID 17227145.
  2. ^ Hokkanen, J.E.I. (February 1986). "The size of the largest land animal". Journal of Theoretical Biology. 118 (4): 491–499. Bibcode:1986JThBi.118..491H. doi:10.1016/S0022-5193(86)80167-9. PMID 3713220.
  3. ^ Romano, Marco; Citton, Paolo; Maganuco, Simone; Sacchi, Eva; Caratelli, Martina; Ronchi, Ausonio; Nicosia, Umberto (May 2019). "New basal synapsid discovery at the Permian outcrop of Torre del Porticciolo (Alghero, Italy)". Geological Journal. 54 (3): 1554–1566. Bibcode:2019GeolJ..54.1554R. doi:10.1002/gj.3250. S2CID 133755506.
  4. ^ "Subcommission on Permian Stratigraphy" (PDF). permian.stratigraphy.org. International Commission on Stratigraphy International Union of Geological Sciences. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 December 2018. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
  5. ^ Reisz, Robert R.; Fröbisch, Jörg (16 April 2014). "The Oldest Caseid Synapsid from the Late Pennsylvanian of Kansas, and the Evolution of Herbivory in Terrestrial Vertebrates". PLOS ONE. 9 (4): e94518. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...994518R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0094518. PMC 3989228. PMID 24739998.
  6. ^ Romer, A.S.; Price, L.W. (1940). "Review of the Pelycosauria". Geological Society of America Special Papers (28): 400, 403. ISBN 978-0-8137-2028-9.
  7. ^ "Edaphosaurus". Palaeos. Archived from the original on 20 February 2022. Retrieved 9 September 2022.
  8. ^ Berman, D.S.; Reisz, R.R.; Martens, T.; Henrici, A.C. (2001). "A new species of Dimetrodon (Synapsida: Sphenacodontidae) from the Lower Permian of Germany records first occurrence of genus outside of North America" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences. 38 (5): 803–812. Bibcode:2001CaJES..38..803B. doi:10.1139/cjes-38-5-803.
  9. ^ Brink, Kirstin S.; Reisz, Robert R. (16 October 2014). "Hidden dental diversity in the oldest terrestrial apex predator Dimetrodon". Nature Communications. 5: 3269. Bibcode:2014NatCo...5.3269B. doi:10.1038/ncomms4269. PMID 24509889.
  10. ^ Olson, E.C. (1955). "Parallelism in the evolution of the Permian reptilian faunas of the Old and New Worlds". Fieldiana. 37 (13): 395. Retrieved 8 September 2022.
  11. ^ St. Fleur, Nicholas (4 January 2019). "An Elephant-Size Relative of Mammals That Grazed Alongside Dinosaurs". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 September 2022.
  12. ^ Sulej, Tomasz; Niedzwiedzki, Grzegorz (4 January 2019). "An elephant-sized Late Triassic synapsid with erect limbs". Science. 363 (6422): 78–80. Bibcode:2019Sci...363...78S. doi:10.1126/science.aal4853. PMID 30467179.
  13. ^ "Gigantic mammal 'cousin' discovered". ScienceDaily (Press release). Uppsala University. 23 November 2018.
  14. ^ Romano, Marco; Manucci, Fabio (3 April 2021). "Resizing Lisowicia bojani : volumetric body mass estimate and 3D reconstruction of the giant Late Triassic dicynodont". Historical Biology. 33 (4): 474–479. Bibcode:2021HBio...33..474R. doi:10.1080/08912963.2019.1631819. ISSN 0891-2963.
  15. ^ van Valkenburgh, Blaire; Jenkins, Ian (2002). "Evolutionary Patterns in the History of Permo-Triassic and Cenozoic synapsid predators". Paleontological Society Papers 8: 267–288.
  16. ^ a b "Brithopodidae / Anteosauridae". Kheper. M.Alan Kazlev. Archived from the original on 12 August 2019. Retrieved 9 September 2022.
  17. ^ a b "Eotitanosuchidae". Kheper. M.Alan Kazlev. Archived from the original on 6 August 2019. Retrieved 9 September 2022.
  18. ^ Prothero, Donald R. (18 April 2022). "20. Synapsids: The Origin of Mammals". Vertebrate Evolution: From Origins to Dinosaurs and Beyond. Boca Raton: CRC Press. doi:10.1201/9781003128205-4. ISBN 978-0-367-47316-7. S2CID 246318785.
  19. ^ a b c Kammerer, Christian F. (2016). "Systematics of the Rubidgeinae (Therapsida: Gorgonopsia)". PeerJ. 4: e1608. doi:10.7717/peerj.1608. PMC 4730894. PMID 26823998.
  20. ^ Pages 158–159 in: Angielczyk, Kenneth D.; Kammerer, Christian F. (2018). "Non-Mammalian synapsids: The deep roots of the mammalian family tree". Mammalian Evolution, Diversity and Systematics. pp. 117–198. doi:10.1515/9783110341553-005. ISBN 978-3-11-034155-3.
  21. ^ J. Van Den Heever (1987), Dissertation Presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Stellenbosch
  22. ^ Lydekker, R. (1908). "The Year's Vertebrate Palæontology". Science Progress in the Twentieth Century (1906-1916). 2 (7): 501–524. JSTOR 43776634.
  23. ^ Broom, Robert (1903). "On Some New Primitive Theriodonts". Annals of the South African Museum. 4.
  24. ^ Tolchard, Frederick; Kammerer, Christian F.; Butler, Richard J.; Hendrickx, Christophe; Benoit, Julien; Abdala, Fernando; Choiniere, Jonah N. (4 March 2021). "A new large gomphodont from the Triassic of South Africa and its implications for Gondwanan biostratigraphy" (PDF). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 41 (2). Bibcode:2021JVPal..41E9265T. doi:10.1080/02724634.2021.1929265.
  25. ^ William A. Clemens (2011). "New morganucodontans from an Early Jurassic fissure filling in Wales (United Kingdom)". Palaeontology. 54 (5): 1139–1156. Bibcode:2011Palgy..54.1139C. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2011.01094.x.
  26. ^ Rose 2006, p. 56.
  27. ^ Paul Selden; John Nudds (19 September 2012). Evolution of Fossil Ecosystems. Second edition. Academic Press. p. 178. ISBN 978-0-12-404629-0. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
  28. ^ Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska; Richard L. Cifelli; Zhe-Xi Luo (2004). "Chapter 12: Metatherians". Mammals from the Age of Dinosaurs: origins, evolution, and structure. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 243. ISBN 978-0-231-11918-4.
  29. ^ a b c Prothero, Donald R. (15 November 2016). The Princeton Field Guide to Prehistoric Mammals. Princeton University Press. p. 33. ISBN 978-0-691-15682-8. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  30. ^ Frank Zachos, Robert Asher (22 October 2018). Mammalian Evolution, Diversity and Systematics. De Gruyter. p. 224. ISBN 978-3-11-034155-3. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
  31. ^ a b Rose 2006, p. 62.
  32. ^ a b Kielan-Jaworowska, Zofia (2013). In Pursuit of Early Mammals. Indiana University Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-253-00824-4. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
  33. ^ Hu, Yaoming; Meng, Jin; Wang, Yuanqing; Li, Chuankui (13 January 2005). "Large Mesozoic mammals fed on young dinosaurs". Nature. 433 (7022): 149–152. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..149H. doi:10.1038/nature03102. PMID 15650737.
  34. ^ T. S. Kemp (2005). The Origin and Evolution of Mammals. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-19-850761-1. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
  35. ^ Rose 2006, p. 60.
  36. ^ Williamson, Thomas E.; Brusatte, Stephen L.; Secord, Ross; Shelley, Sarah (May 2016). "A new taeniolabidoid multituberculate (Mammalia) from the middle Puercan of the Nacimiento Formation, New Mexico, and a revision of taeniolabidoid systematics and phylogeny: Revision of Taeniolabidoidea". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 177 (1): 183–208. doi:10.1111/zoj.12336.
  37. ^ "Zaglossus hacketti – extinct giant echidna". Tourism Western Australia. Archived from the original on 26 January 2014. Retrieved 28 April 2014.
  38. ^ Pian, Rebecca; Archer, Michael; Hand, Suzanne J. (1 November 2013). "A new, giant platypus, Obdurodon tharalkooschild, sp. nov. (Monotremata, Ornithorhynchidae), from the Riversleigh World Heritage Area, Australia". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 33 (6): 1255–1259. Bibcode:2013JVPal..33.1255P. doi:10.1080/02724634.2013.782876. S2CID 85776473.
  39. ^ Weil, Anne (2005). "Mammalian palaeobiology: Living large in the Cretaceous". Nature. 433 (7022) (published 12 January 2005): 116–117. Bibcode:2005Natur.433..116W. doi:10.1038/433116b. PMID 15650725. S2CID 52869101.
  40. ^ Prevosti, Francisco J.; Forasiepi, Analía; Zimicz, Natalia (5 November 2011). "The Evolution of the Cenozoic Terrestrial Mammalian Predator Guild in South America: Competition or Replacement?". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 20 (1): 3–21. doi:10.1007/s10914-011-9175-9. hdl:11336/2663. S2CID 15751319.
  41. ^ Ercoli, Marcos Darío; Prevosti, Francisco Juan (1 December 2011). "Estimación de Masa de las Especies de Sparassodonta (Mammalia, Metatheria) de Edad Santacrucense (Mioceno Temprano) a Partir del Tamaño del Centroide de los Elementos Apendiculares: Inferencias Paleoecológicas" [Mass Estimation of the Holy Cross (Early Miocene) Sparassodonta (Mammalia, Metatheria) Species from the Centroid Size of the Appendicular Elements: Paleoecological Inferences]. Ameghiniana (in Spanish). 48 (4): 462–479. doi:10.5710/amgh.v48i4(347). S2CID 129838311.
  42. ^ a b c d e f g h Sorkin, Boris (December 2008). "A biomechanical constraint on body mass in terrestrial mammalian predators". Lethaia. 41 (4): 333–347. Bibcode:2008Letha..41..333S. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3931.2007.00091.x.
  43. ^ Engelman, Russell K.; Flynn, John J. (John Joseph); Wyss, André R.; Croft, Darin A. (17 July 2020). Eomakhaira molossus, a new saber-toothed sparassodont (Metatheria: Thylacosmilinae) from the early Oligocene (?Tinguirirican) Cachapoal locality, Andean Main Range, Chile. (American Museum novitates, no. 3957) (Report). American Museum of Natural History. hdl:2246/7235.
  44. ^ Forasiepi, Analía M.; Judith Babot, M.; Zimicz, Natalia (3 June 2015). "Australohyaena antiqua (Mammalia, Metatheria, Sparassodonta), a large predator from the Late Oligocene of Patagonia". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 13 (6): 503–525. Bibcode:2015JSPal..13..503F. doi:10.1080/14772019.2014.926403. hdl:11336/59430.
  45. ^ Rose 2006, p. 78.
  46. ^ Zofia Kielan-Jaworowska; Richard L. Cifelli; Zhe-Xi Luo (2004). "Chapter 12: Metatherians". Mammals from the Age of Dinosaurs: origins, evolution, and structure. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 428. ISBN 978-0-231-11918-4.
  47. ^ Wilson, G.P.; Ekdale, E.G.; Hoganson, J.W.; Calede, J.J.; Linden, A.V. (2016). "A large carnivorous mammal from the Late Cretaceous and the North American origin of marsupials". Nature Communications. 7: 13734. Bibcode:2016NatCo...713734W. doi:10.1038/ncomms13734. PMC 5155139. PMID 27929063.
  48. ^ "Ice Age Marsupial Topped Three Tons, Scientists Say". Archived from the original on 13 April 2010.
  49. ^ Richards, Hazel L.; Wells, Rod T.; Evans, Alistair R.; Fitzgerald, Erich M. G.; Adams, Justin W. (13 September 2019). "The extraordinary osteology and functional morphology of the limbs in Palorchestidae, a family of strange extinct marsupial giants". PLOS ONE. 14 (9): e0221824. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1421824R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0221824. PMC 6744111. PMID 31518353.
  50. ^ Alloing-Séguier, Léanie; Sánchez-Villagra, Marcelo R.; Lee, Michael S. Y.; Lebrun, Renaud (2013). "The Bony Labyrinth in Diprotodontian Marsupial Mammals: Diversity in Extant and Extinct Forms and Relationships with Size and Phylogeny". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 20 (3): 191–198. doi:10.1007/s10914-013-9228-3. S2CID 16385939.
  51. ^ Wroe, S.; Myers, T. J.; Wells, R. T.; Gillespie, A. (1999). "Estimating the weight of the Pleistocene marsupial lion, Thylacoleo carnifex (Thylacoleonidae:Marsupialia): implications for the ecomorphology of a marsupial super-predator and hypotheses of impoverishment of Australian marsupial carnivore faunas". Australian Journal of Zoology. 47 (5): 489. doi:10.1071/ZO99006.
  52. ^ Hocknull, Scott A.; Lewis, Richard; Arnold, Lee J.; Pietsch, Tim; Joannes-Boyau, Renaud; Price, Gilbert J.; Moss, Patrick; Wood, Rachel; Dosseto, Anthony; Louys, Julien; Olley, Jon; Lawrence, Rochelle A. (18 May 2020). "Extinction of eastern Sahul megafauna coincides with sustained environmental deterioration". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 2250. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.2250H. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-15785-w. PMC 7231803. PMID 32418985.
  53. ^ Helgen, K. M.; Wells, R. T.; Kear, B. P.; Gerdtz, W. R.; Flannery, T. F. (2006). "Ecological and evolutionary significance of sizes of giant extinct kangaroos". Australian Journal of Zoology. 54 (4): 293–303. doi:10.1071/ZO05077.
  54. ^ Janis, CM; Buttrill, K; Figueirido, B (2014). "Locomotion in Extinct Giant Kangaroos: Were Sthenurines Hop-Less Monsters?". PLOS ONE. 9 (10): e109888. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j9888J. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0109888. PMC 4198187. PMID 25333823.
  55. ^ Long, John A. (2002). Prehistoric Mammals of Australia and New Guinea: One Hundred Million Years of Evolution. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-8018-7223-5.
  56. ^ Kazimierz Kowalski (1976). Mammals. An Outline of Theriology. Polish Scientific Publishers. p. 442. Retrieved 17 September 2022.
  57. ^ John W. Hoganson (2007). Dinosaurs, Sharks, and Woolly Mammoths. State Historical Society of North Dakota. p. 36. ISBN 978-1-891419-33-1. Retrieved 17 September 2022.
  58. ^ Uhen, Mark D.; Gingerich, Philip D. (1995). "Evolution of Coryphodon (Mammalia, Pantodonta) in the Late Paleocene and Early Eocene of Northwestern Wyoming". Contributions from the Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan. 29 (10): 264. hdl:2027.42/48649. OCLC 742731820.
  59. ^ "Paleocene mammals of the world". Archived from the original on 11 September 2022.
  60. ^ a b "Paleocene mammals of the world". www.paleocene-mammals.de. Archived from the original on 3 August 2022. Retrieved 17 September 2022.
  61. ^ a b TJ Meehan, Larry D. Martin (1 September 2012). "New Large Leptictid Insectivore from the Late Paleogene of South Dakota, USA". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 57 (3): 509–518. doi:10.4202/app.2011.0035. S2CID 129358395.
  62. ^ MacPhee, R. D. E. (1994). "Morphology, adaptations, and relationships of Plesiorycteropus : And a diagnosis of a new order of eutherian mammals". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History (220): 148. hdl:2246/828.
  63. ^ "Hippopotamus - paleofiles.com". Archived from the original on 31 October 2020.
  64. ^ Donald R. Prothero, Scott E. Foss (2007). The Evolution of Artiodactyls. The Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 128–129. ISBN 978-0-8018-8735-2. Retrieved 26 September 2020.
  65. ^ Peterson, O. A. (1909). "A revision of the Entelodontidae". Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum. 4 (3): 41–158. doi:10.5962/p.234831. hdl:2027/mdp.39015017493571. S2CID 247000277.
  66. ^ Osborn, Henry Fairfield; Olsen, George; Central Asiatic Expeditions (1924). "Andrewsarchus, giant mesonychid of Mongolia". American Museum Novitates (146). hdl:2246/3226.
  67. ^ Thewissen, J. G. M.; Cooper, Lisa Noelle; Clementz, Mark T.; Bajpai, Sunil; Tiwari, B. N. (2009). "Thewissen et al. Reply". Nature. 458 (7236): E5. Bibcode:2009Natur.458....5T. doi:10.1038/nature07775. S2CID 4431497.
  68. ^ Tabuce, Rodolphe; Clavel, Julien; Antunes, Miguel Telles (February 2011). "A structural intermediate between triisodontids and mesonychians (Mammalia, Acreodi) from the earliest Eocene of Portugal". Naturwissenschaften. 98 (2): 145–155. Bibcode:2011NW.....98..145T. doi:10.1007/s00114-010-0747-y. PMID 21181109.
  69. ^ East, Shirley G. (29 December 2011). The Dream Hunters Epoch: The Paleo Indians Series. Xlibris Corporation. ISBN 978-1-4653-9694-5.
  70. ^ Fariña, Richard A.; Vizcaíno, Sergio F.; Iuliis, Gerry De (22 May 2013). Megafauna: Giant Beasts of Pleistocene South America. Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-00719-3.
  71. ^ "Bison Latifrons – Characteristics, Behavior and Habitat of Bison Latifrons, the Giant Bison". Archived from the original on 10 November 2013.
  72. ^ a b "Extinct Long-horned Bison & Ancient Bison (Bison latifrons and B. antiquus) Fact Sheet: Summary. San Diego Zoo Global Library". Archived from the original on 15 January 2021.
  73. ^ Kurten, B.; Anderson, E. (1980). "Order Artiodactyla". Pleistocene mammals of North America (1st ed.). New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 295–339. ISBN 0-231-03733-3.
  74. ^ "Warkworth Western Weekend Rodeo | Competitors". Archived from the original on 21 August 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2012.
  75. ^ Palmer 1999, p. 281.
  76. ^ a b Camps, Gabriel (1992). "Bubalus antiquus". In Camps, Gabriel (ed.). Encyclopédie Berbère (in French). Aix-en-Provence: Edisud. pp. 1642–1647. doi:10.4000/encyclopedieberbere.1875. Archived from the original on 18 July 2020. Retrieved 31 August 2022.
  77. ^ Pomel, Auguste (1893). Bubalus antiquus. Carte de Géologie de l'Algérie – Paléontologie Monographies de Vertébrés (in French). Algiers: imprimerie P. Fontana. pp. 1–94, pl.1–10. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.13867.
  78. ^ Kysely, René. "Aurochs and potential crossbreeding with domestic cattle in Central Europe in the Eneolithic period. A metric analysis of bones from the archaeological site of Kutná Hora-Denemark (Czech Republic)". Anthropozoologica. 43 (2): 2008.
  79. ^ "Kouprey (Bos sauveli)". Archived from the original on 10 August 2011.
  80. ^ Burnie, D.; Wilson, D.E., eds. (2005). Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife. DK Adult. ISBN 0-7894-7764-5.
  81. ^ K. Suraprasit; J.-J. Jaegar; Y. Chaimanee; O. Chavasseau; C. Yamee; P. Tian; S. Panha (2016). "The Middle Pleistocene vertebrate fauna from Khok Sung (Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand): biochronological and paleobiogeographical implications". ZooKeys (613): 1–157. Bibcode:2016ZooK..613....1S. doi:10.3897/zookeys.613.8309. PMC 5027644. PMID 27667928.
  82. ^ Douglas M. Considine; Glenn D. Considine (2013). Van Nostrand's Scientific Encyclopedia. Springer US. p. 446. ISBN 978-1-4757-6918-0. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  83. ^ Herring, Andy D. (2014). Beef Cattle Production Systems. CABI. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-78064-507-0. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  84. ^ Terry Harrison (27 January 2011). Paleontology and Geology of Laetoli: Human Evolution in Context. Volume 2: Fossil Hominins and the Associated Fauna. Springer Netherlands. p. 404. ISBN 978-90-481-9962-4. Retrieved 17 September 2022.
  85. ^ Discovery. Magazine of the Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University. Volumes 13–16. Peabody Museum of Natural History. 1978. p. 9. Retrieved 17 September 2022.
  86. ^ Churchill, S.E.; Brink, J.S.; Berger, L.R.; Hutchison, R.A.; Rossouw, L.; Stynder, D.; Hancox, P.J.; Brandt, D.; Woodborne, S.; Loock, J.C.; Scott, L.; Ungar, P. (2000). "Erfkroon: a new Florisian fossil locality from fluvial contexts in the western Free State, South Africa". South African Journal of Science. 96 (4): 161–163. hdl:10520/AJA00382353_8897.
  87. ^ David Petersen (1989). "Of Moose, Megaloceros and Miracles". Motherearthnews.com. Archived from the original on 4 May 2017.
  88. ^ Moen, Ron A.; Pastor, John; Cohen, Yosef (1999). "Antler growth and extinction of Irish elk" (PDF). Evolutionary Ecology Research: 235–249.
  89. ^ Kevrekidis, Charalampos; Kostopoulos, Dimitris S. (2017). The southernmost occurrence of Cervalces latifrons (Johnson, 1874) (Artiodactyla: Cervidae) in Europe. 44. Treffen des Arbeitskreises Wirbeltierpaläontologie, 24-26.3.2017, Münster. doi:10.13140/RG.2.2.24751.53928.
  90. ^ Geist, Valerius (1998). Deer of the world: their evolution, behaviour, and ecology. Stackpole Books. pp. 111, 126, 247–250. ISBN 978-0-8117-0496-0.
  91. ^ Breda, Marzia (2010). "Cervalces latifrons". Natural History Museum. Archived from the original on 4 January 2014.
  92. ^ Strauss, Bob. "Stag Moose – Facts and Figures". Thoughtco.com. Archived from the original on 4 November 2021. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
  93. ^ "Cervalces". Escenarios prehistóricos (in Spanish). Laignoranciadelconocimiento.blogspot.com.es. 23 December 2011. Archived from the original on 27 January 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
  94. ^ Basu, Christopher; Falkingham, Peter L.; Hutchinson, John R. (January 2016). "The extinct, giant giraffid Sivatherium giganteum: skeletal reconstruction and body mass estimation". Biology Letters. 12 (1): 20150940. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2015.0940. PMC 4785933. PMID 26763212.
  95. ^ Palmer 1999, p. 273.
  96. ^ Janis, Christine M.; Theodor, Jessica M.; Boisvert, Bethany (14 March 2002). "Locomotor evolution in camels revisited: a quantitative analysis of pedal anatomy and the acquisition of the pacing gait". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 22 (1): 110–121. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2002)022[0110:LEICRA]2.0.CO;2.
  97. ^ Teeth: Kubanochoerus gigas lii (GUAN). tesorosnaturales.es
  98. ^ Pickford, M. (2006). "New suoid specimens from Gebel Zelten, Libya". Estudios Geológicos. 62 (1). doi:10.3989/egeol.0662147.
  99. ^ Palmer 1999, p. 269.
  100. ^ Giant Camel Disappeared Species Archived 10 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Intechinc.com (5 July 2011)
  101. ^ Mendoza, M.; Janis, C. M.; Palmqvist, P. (September 2006). "Estimating the body mass of extinct ungulates: a study on the use of multiple regression". Journal of Zoology. 270 (1): 90–101. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00094.x.
  102. ^ a b "Giant camel fossil found in Syria". BBC News. 10 October 2006. Archived from the original on 27 September 2019. Retrieved 17 April 2013.
  103. ^ Rebecca Wragg Sykes (17 June 2022). Néandertal, un parent: À la découverte de nos origines. Delachaux et Niestlé. ISBN 978-2-603-02968-8. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  104. ^ Anthony J. Stuart, 2021, Vanished Giants: The Lost World of the Ice Age, "6.17 Yesterday's Camel: Camelops Hesternus", p.99, University of Chicago Press
  105. ^ Badiola, Ainara; De Vicuña, Nahia Jiménez; Perales-Gogenola, Leire; Gómez-Olivencia, Asier (2023). "First clear evidence of Anoplotherium (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) in the Iberian Peninsula: an update on the Iberian anoplotheriines". The Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology. doi:10.1002/ar.25238. PMID 37221992. S2CID 258864256.
  106. ^ Hooker, Jerry J. (2007). "Bipedal browsing adaptations of the unusual Late Eocene–earliest Oligocene tylopod Anoplotherium (Artiodactyla, Mammalia)". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 151 (3): 609–659. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2007.00352.x.
  107. ^ Bianucci, G.; Lambert, O.; Urbina, M.; Merella, M.; Collareta, A.; Bennion, R.; Salas-Gismondi, R.; Benites-Palomino, A.; Post, K.; de Muizon, C.; Bosio, G.; Di Celma, C.; Malinverno, E.; Pierantoni, P.P.; Villa, I.M.; Amson, E. (2023). "A heavyweight early whale pushes the boundaries of vertebrate morphology". Nature. 620 (7975): 824–829. Bibcode:2023Natur.620..824B. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-06381-1. PMID 37532931. S2CID 260433513.
  108. ^ Motani, Ryosuke; Pyenson, Nicholas D. (29 February 2024). "Downsizing a heavyweight: factors and methods that revise weight estimates of the giant fossil whale Perucetus colossus". PeerJ. 12: e16978. doi:10.7717/peerj.16978. ISSN 2167-8359. PMC 10909350. PMID 38436015.
  109. ^ Gingerich, P. D.; Arif, M; Bhatti, M Akram; Anwar, M; Sanders, William J (1997). "Basilosaurus drazindai and Basiloterus hussaini, New Archaeoceti (Mammalia, Cetacea) from the Middle Eocene Drazinda Formation, with a Revised Interpretation of Ages of Whale-Bearing Strata in the Kirthar Group of the Sulaiman Range, Punjab (Pakistan)". Contributions from the Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan. 30 (2): 55–81. hdl:2027.42/48652. OCLC 742731913.
  110. ^ Kellogg R. A review of the Archaeoceti. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publications. 1936; 482: 1–366.
  111. ^ Voss, Manja; Antar, Mohammed Sameh M.; Zalmout, Iyad S.; Gingerich, Philip D. (2019). "Stomach contents of the archaeocete Basilosaurus isis: Apex predator in oceans of the late Eocene". PLOS ONE. 14 (1). e0209021. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1409021V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0209021. PMC 6326415. PMID 30625131.
  112. ^ Bianucci, Giovanni; Bosio, Giulia; Malinverno, Elisa; de Muizon, Christian; Villa, Igor M.; Urbina, Mario; Lambert, Olivier (April 2018). "A new large squalodelphinid (Cetacea, Odontoceti) from Peru sheds light on the Early Miocene platanistoid disparity and ecology". Royal Society Open Science. 5 (4): 172302. Bibcode:2018RSOS....572302B. doi:10.1098/rsos.172302. hdl:11568/955787. PMC 5936943. PMID 29765678.
  113. ^ a b Deméré, T.A.; Berta, A.; McGowen, M.R. (2005). "The taxonomic and evolutionary history of fossil and modern balaenopteroid mysticetes". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 12 (1/2): 99–143. doi:10.1007/s10914-005-6944-3. S2CID 90231.
  114. ^ Slater, Graham J.; Goldbogen, Jeremy A.; Pyenson, Nicholas D. (31 May 2017). "Independent evolution of baleen whale gigantism linked to Plio-Pleistocene ocean dynamics". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 284 (1855). 20170546. doi:10.1098/rspb.2017.0546. PMC 5454272. PMID 28539520.
  115. ^ a b c d e f g h Larramendi, Asier (2015). "Proboscideans: Shoulder Height, Body Mass and Shape". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. doi:10.4202/app.00136.2014.
  116. ^ Fortelius, M.; Kappelman, J. (1993). "The largest land mammal ever imagined". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 108: 85–101. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1993.tb02560.x.
  117. ^ Li, Shijie; Jiangzuo, Qigao; Deng, Tao (6 July 2022). "Body mass of the giant rhinos (Paraceratheriinae, Mammalia) and its tendency in evolution". Historical Biology: 1–12. doi:10.1080/08912963.2022.2095908. ISSN 0891-2963.
  118. ^ a b Zhegallo, V.; Kalandadze, N.; Shapovalov, A.; Bessudnova, Z.; Noskova, N.; Tesakova, E. (2005). "On the fossil rhinoceros Elasmotherium (including the collections of the Russian Academy of Sciences)" (PDF). Cranium. 22 (1): 17–40.
  119. ^ a b Schvyreva, A.K. (2016). Эласмотерии плейстоцена Евразии (PDF) (in Russian). pp. 103–105.
  120. ^ a b Kosintsev, P.; Mitchell, K. J.; Devièse, T.; van der Plicht, J.; Kuitems, M.; Petrova, E.; Tikhonov, A.; Higham, T.; Comeskey, D.; Turney, C.; Cooper, A.; van Kolfschoten, T.; Stuart, A. J.; Lister, A. M. (2019). "Evolution and extinction of the giant rhinoceros Elasmotherium sibiricum sheds light on late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 3 (1): 31–38. doi:10.1038/s41559-018-0722-0. hdl:11370/78889dd1-9d08-40f1-99a4-0e93c72fccf3. PMID 30478308. S2CID 53726338.
  121. ^ Krause, Hans (2011). "Hkhpe 07 02". hanskrause.de. Archived from the original on 28 August 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  122. ^ Hans-Dieter Sues, Ross D.E. MacPhee (30 June 1999). Extinctions in Near Time. Causes, Contexts, and Consequences. Springer US. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-306-46092-0. Retrieved 17 September 2022.
  123. ^ Boeskorov, G. G. (2012). "Some specific morphological and ecological features of the fossil woolly rhinoceros (Coelodonta antiquitatis Blumenbach 1799)". Biology Bulletin. 39 (8): 692–707. Bibcode:2012BioBu..39..692B. doi:10.1134/S106235901208002X. S2CID 24868968.
  124. ^ "Coelodonta antiquitatis (Mammal)". Triebold Paleontology, Inc. Archived from the original on 2 June 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  125. ^ "Amynodonts". Archived from the original on 8 September 2006.
  126. ^ Maclaren, Jamie A; Hulbert, Richard C; Wallace, Steven C; Nauwelaerts, Sandra (5 October 2018). "A morphometric analysis of the forelimb in the genus Tapirus (Perissodactyla: Tapiridae) reveals influences of habitat, phylogeny and size through time and across geographical space". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 184 (2): 499–515. doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zly019.
  127. ^ a b Stanislav Drobyshevsky (2021). Палеонтология антрополога. Том 3. Кайнозой (Paleontology of anthropologist. Volume 3. Cenozoic). LitRes. ISBN 978-5-04-380567-6. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
  128. ^ Robinet, Céline; Remy, Jean A.; Laurent, Yves; Danilo, Laure; Lihoreau, Fabrice (2015). "A new genus of Lophiodontidae (Perissodactyla, Mammalia) from the early Eocene of La Borie (Southern France) and the origin of the genus Lophiodon Cuvier, 1822". Geobios. 48 (1): 25–38. Bibcode:2015Geobi..48...25R. doi:10.1016/j.geobios.2014.11.003.
  129. ^ Patricia Vickers Rich; Thomas Hewitt Rich; Mildred Adams Fenton; Carroll Lane (15 January 2020). The Fossil Book: A Record of Prehistoric Life. Dover Publications. p. 573. ISBN 978-0-486-83855-7. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
  130. ^ Agate Fossils National Monument NPS Natural Resource Report NPS/NRPC/GRD/NRR-2009/080 (J. Graham, March 2009)
  131. ^ a b Bob Strauss. "Overview of Brontotherium (Megacerops)". About. Archived from the original on 21 November 2021.
  132. ^ "Brontotherium – Titanothere – Oligocene epoch". Archived from the original on 26 May 2013.
  133. ^ a b Gregory S. Paul; Guy D. Leahy (1994). "Terramegathermy in the time of the titans: Restoring the metabolics of colossal dinosaurs" (PDF). The Paleontological Society Special Publications. 7 (Dino Fest): 177–198. doi:10.1017/S2475262200009515. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 September 2022.
  134. ^ "Brontotheriidae. American Museum of Natural History". Archived from the original on 20 November 2021.
  135. ^ Eisenmann, Vera (2003). "Gigantic horses" (PDF). Advances in Vertebrate Paleontology.
  136. ^ a b Bruce J. MacFadden (1992). Fossil Horses: Systematics, Paleobiology, and Evolution of the Family Equidae. Cambridge University Press. p. 284. ISBN 0-521-47708-5. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
  137. ^ Kathleen M. Janis (1998). Evolution of Tertiary Mammals of North America: Volume 1, Terrestrial, Carnivores, Ungulates and Ungulatel-like mammals. Cambridge University Press. p. 545. ISBN 978-0-521-35519-3. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
  138. ^ a b Badiola, Ainara; Perales-Gogenola, Leire; Astibia, Humberto; Suberbiola, Xabier Pereda (2022). "A synthesis of Eocene equoids (Perissodactyla, Mammalia) from the Iberian Peninsula: new signs of endemism". Historical Biology. 34 (8): 1623–1631. Bibcode:2022HBio...34.1623B. doi:10.1080/08912963.2022.2060098. S2CID 248164842.
  139. ^ Franzen, Jens L. (1968). Revision der Gattung Palaeotherium Cuvier, 1804 (Palaeotheriidae, Perissodactyla, Mammalia) (Inaugural Dissertation). Vol. 1. University of Freiburg.
  140. ^ Roman, Frédéric (1922). Monographie de la faune de mammifères de Mormoiron (Vaucluse) ludien supérieur. Société géologique de France.
  141. ^ T. S. Kemp (4 November 2004). The Origin and Evolution of Mammals. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 237. ISBN 978-0-19-154517-7. Retrieved 21 September 2022.
  142. ^ Jerison, H.J. (2007). "What Fossils Tell Us about the Evolution of the Neocortex". Evolution of Nervous Systems. pp. 1–12. doi:10.1016/B0-12-370878-8/00065-3. ISBN 978-0-12-370878-6.
  143. ^ a b c Patricia Vickers Rich; Thomas Hewitt Rich; Mildred Adams Fenton; Carroll Lane Fenton (15 January 2020). The Fossil Book: A Record of Prehistoric Life. Dover Publications. p. 555. ISBN 978-0-486-83855-7. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  144. ^ a b c d "Ice Age Mammals - EnchantedLearning.com".
  145. ^ a b Soibelzon, Leopoldo H.; Schubert, Blaine W. (January 2011). "The largest known bear, Arctotherium angustidens , from the early Pleistocene Pampean region of Argentina: with a discussion of size and diet trends in bears". Journal of Paleontology. 85 (1): 69–75. doi:10.1666/10-037.1. hdl:11336/104215.
  146. ^ Dell'Amore, C. (2011): Biggest Bear Ever Found, National Geographic News, Published 3 February 2011
  147. ^ Figueirido, Borja; Pérez-Claros, Juan A.; Torregrosa, Vanessa; Martín-Serra, Alberto; Palmqvist, Paul (29 January 2010). "Demythologizing Arctodus simus , the 'short-faced' long-legged and predaceous bear that never was". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 30 (1): 262–275. Bibcode:2010JVPal..30..262F. doi:10.1080/02724630903416027.
  148. ^ "Huge Cave Bears: When and Why They Disappeared". Live Science. 25 November 2008.
  149. ^ Jin, Changzhu; Ciochon, Russell L.; Dong, Wei; Hunt, Robert M.; Liu, Jinyi; Jaeger, Marc; Zhu, Qizhi (26 June 2007). "The first skull of the earliest giant panda". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (26): 10932–10937. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10410932J. doi:10.1073/pnas.0704198104. PMC 1904166. PMID 17578912.
  150. ^ a b Berta, Annalisa (2017). The Rise of Marine Mammals: 50 Million Years of Evolution. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-1-4214-2325-8. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  151. ^ a b Xénia Keighley; Morten Tange Olsen; Peter Jordan; Sean P.A. Desjardins (2021). The Atlantic Walrus: Multidisciplinary Insights into Human-Animal Interactions. Charlotte Cockle. p. 17. ISBN 978-0-12-817431-9. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  152. ^ Churchill, Morgan; Clementz, Mark T.; Kohno, Naoki (January 2015). "Cope's rule and the evolution of body size in Pinnipedimorpha (Mammalia: Carnivora)". Evolution. 69 (1): 201–215. doi:10.1111/evo.12560. PMID 25355195.
  153. ^ István Fozy; István Szente; Gareth Dyke (1977). Otarioid seals of the Neogene. Geological Survey Professional Paper, Volume 992. Geological Survey (U.S.). pp. 61–62. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
  154. ^ a b Grohe, Camille; Uno, Kevin; Boisserie, Jean-Renaud (2022). "Lutrinae Bonaparte, 1838 (Carnivora, Mustelidae) from the Plio-Pleistocene of the Lower Omo Valley, southwestern Ethiopia: systematics and new insights into the paleoecology and paleobiogeography of the Turkana otters". Comptes Rendus Palevol (in French). 30 (30): 684–693. doi:10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a30. S2CID 252106648.
  155. ^ Geraads, Denis; Alemseged, Zeresenay; Bobe, René; Reed, Denné (2011). "Enhydriodon dikikae, sp. nov. (Carnivora: Mammalia), a gigantic otter from the Pliocene of Dikika, Lower Awash, Ethiopia". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 31 (2): 447–453. Bibcode:2011JVPal..31..447G. doi:10.1080/02724634.2011.550356. S2CID 84797296.
  156. ^ "The Bear Otter". Wired. 26 March 2011.
  157. ^ "Siamogale melilutra: Giant Otter Fossils Reveal New Species – Paleontology – Sci-News.com". sci-news.com.
  158. ^ "Islands of otters and strange foxes". scienceblogs.com.[self-published source?]
  159. ^ a b c Valenciano, Alberto; Baskin, Jon A.; Abella, Juan; Pérez-Ramos, Alejandro; Álvarez-Sierra, M. Ángeles; Morales, Jorge; Hartstone-Rose, Adam (7 April 2016). "Megalictis, the Bone-Crushing Giant Mustelid (Carnivora, Mustelidae, Oligobuninae) from the Early Miocene of North America". PLOS ONE. 11 (4): e0152430. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1152430V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0152430. PMC 4824437. PMID 27054570.
  160. ^ Prothero, Donald R. (2016). The Princeton Field Guide to Prehistoric Mammals. Princeton University Press. p. 144. ISBN 978-1-4008-8445-2. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  161. ^ Turner, Alan; Antón, Mauricio (2004). Evolving eden: an illustrated guide to the evolution of the African large-mammal fauna. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 106–107. ISBN 0-231-11944-5. OCLC 53900492.
  162. ^ Orlov, Jury A. (June 1948). "Perunium Ursogulo Orlov, A New Gigantic Extinct Mustelid (A Contribution to the Morphology of the Skull and Brain and to the Phylogeny of Mustelidae)". Acta Zoologica. 29 (1): 63–105. doi:10.1111/j.1463-6395.1948.tb00028.x.
  163. ^ Valenciano, Alberto; Abella, Juan; Sanisidro, Oscar; Hartstone-Rose, Adam; Álvarez-Sierra, María Ángeles; Morales, Jorge (4 July 2015). "Complete description of the skull and mandible of the giant mustelid Eomellivora piveteaui Ozansoy, 1965 (Mammalia, Carnivora, Mustelidae), from Batallones (MN10), late Miocene (Madrid, Spain)". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 35 (4): e934570. Bibcode:2015JVPal..35E4570V. doi:10.1080/02724634.2014.934570.
  164. ^ Forasiepi, Analía M.; Prevosti, Francisco J. (2018). Evolution of South American mammalian predators during the Cenozoic: paleobiogeographic and paleoenvironmental contingencies. Cham: Springer. pp. 124–125. ISBN 978-3-319-03701-1.
  165. ^ Tarquini, Juliana; Toledo, Néstor; Soibelzon, Leopoldo H.; Morgan, Cecilia C. (March 2017). "Body mass estimation for †Cyonasua (Procyonidae, Carnivora) and related taxa based on postcranial skeleton". Historical Biology. 30 (4): 496–506. doi:10.1080/08912963.2017.1295042. hdl:11336/49670. S2CID 90408657.
  166. ^ Díaz-Sibaja, R. (2010). "Titanes Vol. 1 Mamíferos." Fósil Revista de Paleontología. ISSN 0717-9235
  167. ^ Andersson, Ki (2005). "Were there pack-hunting canids in the Tertiary, and how can we know?". Paleobiology. 41 (4): 333–347. Bibcode:2005Pbio...31...56A. doi:10.1666/0094-8373(2005)031<0056:WTPCIT>2.0.CO;2. S2CID 85306826.
  168. ^ Wang, Xiaoming; Tedford, Richard H. (2008). Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives & Evolutionary History.
  169. ^ "Wolves, Coyotes, and Dogs (Genus Canis)". Museum.state.il.us. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
  170. ^ Boudadi-Maligne, Myriam (October 2012). "Une nouvelle sous-espèce de loup (Canis lupus maximus nov. subsp.) dans le Pléistocène supérieur d'Europe occidentale". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 11 (7): 475–484. Bibcode:2012CRPal..11..475B. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2012.04.003.
  171. ^ F.BERTÈ, DAVIDE; PANDOLFI, LUCA (30 November 2014). "CANIS LUPUS (MAMMALIA, CANIDAE) FROM THE LATE PLEISTOCENE DEPOSIT OF AVETRANA (TARANTO, SOUTHERN ITALY)". Rivista italiana di Paleontologia e Stratigrafia. 120. doi:10.13130/2039-4942/6079.
  172. ^ Figueirido, Borja; Pérez-Claros, Juan A.; Hunt, Robert M.; Palmqvist, Paul (June 2011). "Body Mass Estimation in Amphicyonid Carnivoran Mammals: A Multiple Regression Approach from the Skull and Skeleton". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 56 (2): 225–246. doi:10.4202/app.2010.0005.
  173. ^ Jordi Agusti and Mauricio Anton: Mammoths, Sabertooths, and Hominids 65 million years of Mammalian Evolution in Europe, Columbia University Press, 2002, pp.81–83
  174. ^ Barrett, Paul Zachary (26 October 2021). "The largest hoplophonine and a complex new hypothesis of nimravid evolution". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 21078. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1121078B. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-00521-1. PMC 8548586. PMID 34702935. S2CID 240000358.
  175. ^ Peigné, S.; de Bonis, L.; Likius, A.; Mackaye, H. T.; Vignaud, P.; Brunet, M. (2005). "A new machairodontine (Carnivora, Felidae) from the Late Miocene hominid locality of TM 266, Toros-Menalla, Chad". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 4 (3): 243–253. Bibcode:2005CRPal...4..243P. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2004.10.002.
  176. ^ a b Sherani, Shaheer (2016). "A new specimen-dependent method of estimating felid body mass" (PDF). PeerJ Preprints: 16. doi:10.7287/peerj.preprints.2327v2. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
  177. ^ a b Giovanni G. Bellani (2019). Felines of the World. Discoveries in Taxonomic Classification and History. Elsevier Science. pp. 30–31. ISBN 978-0-12-817277-3. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
  178. ^ "Newly identified saber-toothed cat is one of largest in history".
  179. ^ Orcutt, John D.; Calede, Jonathan J.M. (September 2021). "Quantitative Analyses of Feliform Humeri Reveal the Existence of a Very Large Cat in North America During the Miocene". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 28 (3): 729–751. doi:10.1007/s10914-021-09540-1.
  180. ^ "Giant Saber-Toothed Cat Roamed North America during Miocene | Paleontology". Sci-News.com. 4 May 2021. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
  181. ^ "Xenosmilus". ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  182. ^ Marciszak, Adrian; Gornig, Wiktoria (September 2024). "From giant to dwarf: A trend of decreasing size in Panthera spelaea (Goldfuss, 1810) and its likely implications". Earth History and Biodiversity. 1: 100007. doi:10.1016/j.hisbio.2024.100007.
  183. ^ Merriam, J. C. & Stock, C. 1932: The Felidae of Rancho La Brea. Carnegie Institution of Washington Publications 442, 1–231.
  184. ^ DeSantis, L. R.; Schubert, B. W.; Scott, J. R.; Ungar, P. S. (2012). "Implications of diet for the extinction of saber-toothed cats and American lions". PLOS ONE. 7 (12): e52453. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...752453D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052453. PMC 3530457. PMID 23300674.
  185. ^ Manthi, Fredrick K.; Brown, Francis H.; Plavcan, Michael J.; Werdelin, Lars (March 2018). "Gigantic lion, Panthera leo , from the Pleistocene of Natodomeri, eastern Africa". Journal of Paleontology. 92 (2): 305–312. Bibcode:2018JPal...92..305M. doi:10.1017/jpa.2017.68.
  186. ^ Anne Schmidt-Kuentzel; Laurie Marker; Lorraine K. Boast (2017). Cheetahs: Biology and Conservation. Elsevier Science. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-12-804120-8. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  187. ^ Lane, H. H. (1947). "Survey of the Fossil Vertebrates of Kansas: Part V: The Mammals (Continued)". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. 50 (3/4): 273–314. doi:10.2307/3625600. JSTOR 3625600.
  188. ^ Antón, Mauricio (22 November 2013). Sabertooth. Indiana University Press. pp. 104–107. ISBN 978-0-253-01049-0. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
  189. ^ Alan Turner, National Geographic Prehistoric Mammals National Geographic, 2004, ISBN 0-7922-7134-3
  190. ^ Turner, Alan; Antón, Mauricio (1996). "The giant hyaena Pachycrocuta brevirostris (Mammalia, Carnivora, Hyaenidae)". Geobios. 29 (#4): 455–468. Bibcode:1996Geobi..29..455T. doi:10.1016/S0016-6995(96)80005-2.
  191. ^ Flannery, Tim (2018). Europe: The First 100 Million Years. Penguin Books Limited. p. 29: Other temperate giants. ISBN 978-0-14-198903-7.
  192. ^ "Sabertooth's Bane: Introducing Dinocrocuta". wordpress.com. 12 January 2016. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020.
  193. ^ Personal communication from R. Dewer in Burness et al., 2001, table 1
  194. ^ Wroe et al., 2004, p. 297
  195. ^ Goodman, S. (2009). "Family Eupleridae (Madagascar Carnivores)". In Wilson, D.; Mittermeier, R. (eds.). Handbook of the Mammals of the World. Volume 1: Carnivores. Lynx Edicions. ISBN 978-84-96553-49-1. Archived from the original on 25 July 2011. Retrieved 31 May 2010.
  196. ^ Borths, M. R.; Stevens, N. J. (2019). "Simbakubwa kutokaafrika, gen. et sp. nov. (Hyainailourinae, Hyaenodonta, "Creodonta," Mammalia), a gigantic carnivore from the earliest Miocene of Kenya". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 39 (1): e1570222. Bibcode:2019JVPal..39E0222B. doi:10.1080/02724634.2019.1570222. S2CID 145972918.
  197. ^ Savage, R. J. G. (1973). "Megistotherium, gigantic hyaenodont from Miocene of Gebel Zelten, Libya". Bulletin of the British Museum (Natural History), Geology. 22 (7): 483–511. doi:10.5962/p.150151.
  198. ^ a b N. N. Kramarenko (1974). Зоогеография палеогена Азии [Zoogeography of Paleogene of Asia] (in Russian). Publishing office "Nauka". pp. 113–114. Retrieved 18 September 2022.
  199. ^ O'Leary, Maureen A.; Lucas, Spencer G.; Williamson, Thomas E. (2000). "A new specimen of Ankalagon (Mammalia, Mesonychia) and evidence of sexual dimorphism in mesonychians". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 20 (2): 387–93. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2000)020[0387:ANSOAM]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 4524103. S2CID 86542114.
  200. ^ Paleocene mammals of the world "Carnivores, creodonts and carnivorous ungulates: Mammals become predators"
  201. ^ de Lazaro, Enrico (26 July 2021). "100,000-Year-Old Fossil of Giant Vampire Bat Found in Argentina | Sci.News". Sci.News.
  202. ^ Villier, Boris (18 January 2013). "Deinogalerix: a giant hedgehog from the Miocene". Sezione di Museologia Scientifica e Naturalistica. 6: 93–102. doi:10.15160/1824-2707/417.
  203. ^ Freudenthal, M. (1972). "Deinogalerix koenigswaldi nov. gen., nov. spec., a giant insectivore from the Neogene of Italy". Scripta Geologica. 14: 1–19.
  204. ^ a b Engelman, Russell K. (June 2022). "Resizing the largest known extinct rodents (Caviomorpha: Dinomyidae, Neoepiblemidae) using occipital condyle width". Royal Society Open Science. 9 (6): 220370. Bibcode:2022RSOS....920370E. doi:10.1098/rsos.220370. PMC 9198521. PMID 35719882.
  205. ^ a b c Defler, Thomas (2018). History of Terrestrial Mammals in South America. Springer International Publishing. pp. 151–154. ISBN 978-3-319-98449-0. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
  206. ^ Biknevicus, A. R.; McFarlane, D. A.; MacPhee, R. D. E. (1993). "Body size in Amblyrhiza inundata (Rodentia: Caviomorpha), an extinct megafaunal rodent from the Anguilla Bank, West Indies: Estimates and implications". American Museum Novitates (3079). New York: American Museum of Natural History: 1–25. hdl:2246/4976.
  207. ^ Swinehart, Anthony L.; Richards, Ronald L. (22 December 2001). "Palaeoecology of a Northeast Indiana Wetland harboring remains of the pleistocene giant beaver (Castoroides ohioenis)". Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science: 151–167. S2CID 130809143. Gale A83518043.
  208. ^ Milius, Susan (2011). "The Bunny That Ruled Minorca". Science News. 179 (9): 18. doi:10.1002/scin.5591790921.
  209. ^ Gaudin, Timothy J.; Emry, Robert J.; Wible, John R. (December 2009). "The Phylogeny of Living and Extinct Pangolins (Mammalia, Pholidota) and Associated Taxa: A Morphology Based Analysis". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 16 (4): 235–305. doi:10.1007/s10914-009-9119-9.
  210. ^ Hooijer, D.A. (1947). "A femur of Manis palaeojavanica Dubois from Western Java". Proceedings of the Koninklijke Nederlandsche Akademie van Wetenschappen. 50 (4): 423–418.
  211. ^ Ciochon, Russell L. "The Ape that Was – Asian fossils reveal humanity's giant cousin". University of Iowa. Archived from the original on 25 May 2015. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
  212. ^ Pettifor, Eric (2000) [1995]. "From the Teeth of the Dragon: Gigantopithecus Blacki". Selected Readings in Physical Anthropology. Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company. pp. 143–149. ISBN 978-0-7872-7155-8. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 7 September 2022.
  213. ^ Zhang, Yingqi; Harrison, Terry (January 2017). "Gigantopithecus blacki: a giant ape from the Pleistocene of Asia revisited". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 162 (S63): 153–177. doi:10.1002/ajpa.23150. PMID 28105715. S2CID 46838584.
  214. ^ Wibowo, Andri (2020). Steps of the Asian Giants: Modeling the Body Size Related Foraging Ecology of Meganthropus palaeojavanicus, a 8 Feet Hominid in Central Java (Preprint). doi:10.20944/preprints202011.0504.v1.
  215. ^ Zanolli, Clément; Kullmer, Ottmar; Kelley, Jay; Bacon, Anne-Marie; Demeter, Fabrice; Dumoncel, Jean; Fiorenza, Luca; Grine, Frederick E.; Hublin, Jean-Jacques; Nguyen, Anh Tuan; Nguyen, Thi Mai Huong; Pan, Lei; Schillinger, Burkhard; Schrenk, Friedemann; Skinner, Matthew M.; Ji, Xueping; Macchiarelli, Roberto (8 April 2019). "Evidence for increased hominid diversity in the Early to Middle Pleistocene of Indonesia". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 3 (5): 755–764. Bibcode:2019NatEE...3..755Z. doi:10.1038/s41559-019-0860-z. PMID 30962558.
  216. ^ Froehle AW, Churchill SE (2009). "Energetic Competition Between Neandertals and Anatomically Modern Humans" (PDF). PaleoAnthropology: 96–116. Retrieved 12 September 2022.
  217. ^ a b Carretero, José-Miguel; Rodríguez, Laura; García-González, Rebeca; Arsuaga, Juan-Luis; Gómez-Olivencia, Asier; Lorenzo, Carlos; Bonmatí, Alejandro; Gracia, Ana; Martínez, Ignacio (2012). "Stature estimation from complete long bones in the Middle Pleistocene humans from the Sima de los Huesos, Sierra de Atapuerca (Spain)" (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution. 62 (2): 242–255. Bibcode:2012JHumE..62..242C. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.11.004. PMID 22196156.
  218. ^ Alan Walker, Richard Leakey (1993). The Nariokotome Homo erectus skeleton. Harvard University Press. p. 412. ISBN 978-0-674-60075-1. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
  219. ^ Migliano, Andrea Bamberg; Guillon, Myrtille (December 2012). "The Effects of Mortality, Subsistence, and Ecology on Human Adult Height and Implications for Homo Evolution". Current Anthropology. 53 (S6): S359–S368. doi:10.1086/667694.
  220. ^ Delson, Eric; Terranova, Carl J.; Jungers, William J.; Sargis, Sargis; Jablonski, Nina G.; Dechow, Paul C. (2000). "Body mass in Cercopithecidae (Primates, Mammalia): estimation and scaling in extinct and extant taxa". Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. 83: 1–159.
  221. ^ Jablonski, N.G.; Leakey, M.G.; Anton, M. (2008). "Systematic Paleontology of the Cercopithecines". In Jablonski, N.G.; Leakey, M.G. (eds.). The Fossil Monkeys. Koobi Fora Research Project. Vol. 6. San Francisco: California Academy of Sciences. pp. 103–300. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  222. ^ Perry, Jonathan M. G.; Cooke, Siobhán B.; Runestad Connour, Jacqueline A.; Burgess, M. Loring; Ruff, Christopher B. (2018). "Articular scaling and body mass estimation in platyrrhines and catarrhines: Modern variation and application to fossil anthropoids". Journal of Human Evolution. 115: 20–35. Bibcode:2018JHumE.115...20P. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.10.008. PMID 29150186.
  223. ^ Dunn, Rachel H. (May 2010). "Additional postcranial remains of omomyid primates from the Uinta Formation, Utah and implications for the locomotor behavior of large-bodied omomyids". Journal of Human Evolution. 58 (5): 406–417. Bibcode:2010JHumE..58..406D. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2010.02.010. PMID 20381124.
  224. ^ Jungers, W. L.; Demes, B.; Godfrey, L. R. (2008). "How Big were the "Giant" Extinct Lemurs of Madagascar?". In Fleagle, J. G.; Gilbert, C. C. (eds.). Elwyn Simons: A Search for Origins. Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects. p. 350. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-73896-3_23. ISBN 978-0-387-73895-6.
  225. ^ Godfrey, L. R.; Jungers, W. L. (2002). "Quaternary fossil lemurs". In Hartwig, W. C (ed.). The Primate Fossil Record. Cambridge University Press. p. 101. ISBN 978-0-521-66315-1.
  226. ^ a b Crowley, Brooke E.; Godfrey, Laurie R.; Irwin, Mitchell T. (January 2011). "A glance to the past: subfossils, stable isotopes, seed dispersal, and lemur species loss in Southern Madagascar". American Journal of Primatology. 73 (1): 25–37. doi:10.1002/ajp.20817. PMID 20205184.
  227. ^ Megaladapis edwardsi: Scientific information. Archived copy from 20 January 2021.[self-published source?]
  228. ^ Paul, Gregory S.; Larramendi, Asier (11 April 2023). "Body mass estimate of Bruhathkayosaurus and other fragmentary sauropod remains suggest the largest land animals were about as big as the greatest whales". Lethaia. 56 (2): 1–11. Bibcode:2023Letha..56..2.5P. doi:10.18261/let.56.2.5. ISSN 0024-1164.
  229. ^ Romano, Marco; Bellucci, Luca; Antonelli, Matteo; Manucci, Fabio; Palombo, Maria Rita (2023). "Body mass estimate of Anancus arvernensis (Croizet and Jobert 1828): comparison of the regression and volumetric methods". Journal of Quaternary Science. 38 (8): 1357–1381. Bibcode:2023JQS....38.1357R. doi:10.1002/jqs.3549. ISSN 0267-8179.
  230. ^ Osborn, H. F. (1942). Proboscidea, Vol. II. New York: The American Museum Press.
  231. ^ Lister, A.; Bahn, P. (2007). Mammoths – Giants of the Ice Age (3 ed.). London: Frances Lincoln. ISBN 978-0-520-26160-0.[page needed]
  232. ^ Mol, D. and van Logchem, W. 2009. The mastodon of Milia: the longest tusks in the world. Deposits 19: 28–32.
  233. ^ Marsh, Helene; O'Shea, Thomas J.; Reynolds III, John E. (2011). "Steller's sea cow: discovery, biology and exploitation of a relict giant sirenian". Ecology and Conservation of the Sirenia: Dugongs and Manatees. New York, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 18–35. ISBN 978-0-521-88828-8. OCLC 778803577.
  234. ^ Scheffer, Victor B. (November 1972). "The Weight of the Steller Sea Cow". Journal of Mammalogy. 53 (4): 912–914. doi:10.2307/1379236. JSTOR 1379236.
  235. ^ Mawatari, Shunsuke F. (1986). "A new genus and species of celleporid bryozoan with ancestrula triad from Hokkaido, Japan". Journal of Natural History. 20 (1): 193–202. Bibcode:1986JNatH..20..193M. doi:10.1080/00222938600770161. ISSN 0022-2933.
  236. ^ Andrews, C.W. (1906). A descriptive catalogue of the Tertiary Vertebrata of the Fayûm. British Museum, London. Taylor and Francis. p. 324.
  237. ^ Mondéjar-Fernández; et al. (2008). "El género Arsinoitherium: catálogo de la colección inédita del Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle de París y el problema del número de especies". Palaeontologica Nova (in Spanish). 8: 291–304.
  238. ^ Sanders, William J.; Kappelman, John; Rasmussen, D. Tab (2004). "New large-bodied mammals from the late Oligocene site of Chilga, Ethiopia - Acta Palaeontologica Polonica". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 49 (3): 365–392.
  239. ^ a b Rose 2006, p. 260.
  240. ^ Tabuce, Rodolphe (18 April 2016). "A mandible of the hyracoid mammal Titanohyrax andrewsi in the collections of the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris (France) with a reassessment of the species" (PDF). Palaeovertebrata. 40 (1): e4. doi:10.18563/pv.40.1.e4.
  241. ^ J. G. M. Thewissen; E. L. Simons (2001). "Skull of Megalohyrax eocaenus (Hyracoidea, Mammalia) from the Oligocene of Egypt". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 21 (1): 98–106. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2001)021[0098:SOMEHM]2.0.CO;2. JSTOR 4524175. S2CID 86063305.
  242. ^ Prothero, Donald R.; Schoch, Robert M. (1989). The Evolution of Perissodactyls. Oxford University Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-19-506039-3.
  243. ^ Skinner, J. D.; Chimimba, Christian T. (2005). The Mammals of the Southern African Sub-region. Cambridge University Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-1-107-39405-6. Retrieved 20 September 2022.
  244. ^ Werdelin, Lars; Sanders, William Joseph (2010). Cenozoic Mammals of Africa. University of California Press. p. 143. ISBN 978-0-520-25721-4. Retrieved 20 September 2022.
  245. ^ Pyenson, Nicholas D.; Vermeij, Geerat J. (2016). "The rise of ocean giants: Maximum body size in Cenozoic marine mammals as an indicator for productivity in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans". Biology Letters. 12 (7). doi:10.1098/rsbl.2016.0186. PMC 4971165. PMID 27381883. S2CID 1652462.
  246. ^ Hayashi, Shoji; Houssaye, Alexandra; Nakajima, Yasuhisa; Chiba, Kentaro; Ando, Tatsuro; Sawamura, Hiroshi; Inuzuka, Norihisa; Kaneko, Naotomo; Osaki, Tomohiro (2 April 2013). "Bone Inner Structure Suggests Increasing Aquatic Adaptations in Desmostylia (Mammalia, Afrotheria)". PLOS ONE. 8 (4): e59146. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...859146H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0059146. PMC 3615000. PMID 23565143.
  247. ^ Lister, Adrian (24 April 2018). Darwin's Fossils. The Collection That Shaped the Theory of Evolution. Smithsonian. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-58834-617-9. Retrieved 4 September 2022.
  248. ^ Larmon, Jean T.; McDonald, H. Gregory; Ambrose, Stanley; DeSantis, Larisa R. G.; Lucero, Lisa J. (27 February 2019). "A year in the life of a giant ground sloth during the Last Glacial Maximum in Belize". Science Advances. 5 (2): eaau1200. Bibcode:2019SciA....5.1200L. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aau1200. PMC 6392778. PMID 30820449.
  249. ^ "Megatherium". BBC > Science & Nature > Animals > Wildfacts. 1 February 2014. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 29 June 2017.
  250. ^ Johnson, Steven C. and Madden, Richard H.. Uruguaytheriinae Astrapotheres of Tropical South America. Chapter 22 in "Vertebrate Paleontology in the Neotropics. The Miocene Fauna of La Venta, Colombia". Edited by Richard F. Kay, Richard H. Madden, Richard L. Cifelli, and John J. Flynn. Smithsonian Institution Press. Washington and London.
  251. ^ Kramarz, Alejandro G.; Bond, Mariano (2008). "Revision of Parastrapotherium (Mammalia, Astrapotheria) and other Deseadan astrapotheres of Patagonia". Ameghiniana. 45 (3). Retrieved 1 March 2013.
  252. ^ Carrillo, Juan D.; Amson, Eli; Jaramillo, Carlos; Sánchez, Rodolfo; Quiroz, Luis; Cuartas, Carlos; Rincón, Aldo F.; Sánchez-Villagra, Marcelo R. (27 July 2018). "The Neogene Record of Northern South American Native Ungulates". Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology (101): iv–67. doi:10.5479/si.1943-6688.101. S2CID 135113342.
  253. ^ Gingerich, Philip D. (1998). "Paleobiological Perspectives on Mesonychia, Archaeoceti, and the Origin of Whales". In Thewissen, J.G.M. (ed.). The emergence of whales: evolutionary patterns in the origin of Cetacea. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 423–450. ISBN 978-0-306-45853-8.
  254. ^ Elissamburu, A (2012). "Estimación de la masa corporal en géneros del Orden Notoungulata". Estudios Geológicos. 68 (1): 91–111. doi:10.3989/egeol.40336.133. hdl:11336/197170.
  255. ^ Croft, Darin A.; Gelfo, Javier N.; López, Guillermo M. (30 May 2020). "Splendid Innovation: The Extinct South American Native Ungulates". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 48 (1): 259–290. Bibcode:2020AREPS..48..259C. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-072619-060126.
  256. ^ Dortangs, Rudi W.; Schulp, Anne S.; Eric W. A. Mulder; John W.M. Jagt (2002). "A large new mosasaur from the Upper Cretaceous of The Netherlands". Netherlands Journal of Geosciences. 81 (1): 1–8. Bibcode:2002NJGeo..81....1D. doi:10.1017/S0016774600020515.
  257. ^ Grigoriev, Dimitry V. (2014). "Giant Mosasaurus hoffmanni (Squamata, Mosasauridae) from the Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) of Penza, Russia" (PDF). Proceedings of the Zoological Institute RAS. 318 (2): 148–167. doi:10.31610/trudyzin/2014.318.2.148. S2CID 53574339.
  258. ^ Fanti, Federico; Cau, Andrea; Negri, Alessandra (May 2014). "A giant mosasaur (Reptilia, Squamata) with an unusually twisted dentition from the Argille Scagliose Complex (late Campanian) of Northern Italy". Cretaceous Research. 49: 91–104. Bibcode:2014CrRes..49...91F. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2014.01.003.
  259. ^ Everhart, Mike. "Research: Tylosaurus proriger – A new record of a large mosasaur from the Smoky Hill Chalk". Oceans of Kansas. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
  260. ^ "Fact File: Tylosaurus Proriger from National Geographic". Archived from the original on 7 February 2010. Retrieved 12 May 2010.
  261. ^ Head, Jason; Bloch, Jonathan; Moreno Bernal, Jorge; Rincón Burbano, Aldo Fernando; Bourque, Jason (October 2013). Cranial osteology, body size, systematics, and ecology of the giant Paleocene snake Titanoboa cerrejonensis. 73nd Annual Meeting of the Society of vertebrate Paleontology. Los Angeles, California: Society of Vertebrate Paleontology. pp. 140–141. Retrieved 22 May 2017.
  262. ^ a b Head, Jason J.; Bloch, Jonathan I.; Hastings, Alexander K.; Bourque, Jason R.; Cadena, Edwin A.; Herrera, Fabiany A.; Polly, P. David; Jaramillo, Carlos A. (5 February 2009). "Giant boid snake from the Palaeocene neotropics reveals hotter past equatorial temperatures". Nature. 457 (7230): 715–717. Bibcode:2009Natur.457..715H. doi:10.1038/nature07671. PMID 19194448.
  263. ^ Datta, Debajit; Bajpai, Sunil (18 April 2024). "Largest known madtsoiid snake from warm Eocene period of India suggests intercontinental Gondwana dispersal". Scientific Reports. 14 (1): 8054. Bibcode:2024NatSR..14.8054D. doi:10.1038/s41598-024-58377-0. PMID 38637509.
  264. ^ Rage, Jean-Claude; Bajpai, Sunil; Thewissen, Johannes G. M.; Tiwari, Brahma N. (2003). "Early eocene snakes from Kutch, Western India, with a review of the Palaeophiidae" (PDF). Geodiversitas. 25 (4): 695–716.
  265. ^ Rage, J.-C. (1983). "Palaeophis colossaeus nov. sp. (le plus grand Seprent connu?) de l'Eocène du Mali et le problème du genre chez les Palaeopheinae". Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences. 3 (296): 1741–1744.
  266. ^ McCartney, Jacob; Roberts, Eric; Tapanila, Leif; O'Leary, Maureen (2018). "Large palaeophiid and nigerophiid snakes from Paleogene Trans-Saharan Seaway deposits of Mali". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 63. doi:10.4202/app.00442.2017.
  267. ^ Head, J. & Polly, D. 2004. They might be giants: morphometric methods for reconstructing body size in the world's largest snakes. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology 24 (Supp. 3), 68A-69A.
  268. ^ "A giant among snakes". newscientist.com.
  269. ^ Rio, Jonathan P.; Mannion, Philip D. (4 July 2017). "The osteology of the giant snake Gigantophis garstini from the upper Eocene of North Africa and its bearing on the phylogenetic relationships and biogeography of Madtsoiidae". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 37 (4): e1347179. Bibcode:2017JVPal..37E7179R. doi:10.1080/02724634.2017.1347179. hdl:10044/1/48946. S2CID 90335531.
  270. ^ Scanlon, John D.; Mackness, Brian S. (1 January 2001). "A new giant python from the Pliocene Bluff Downs Local Fauna of northeastern Queensland". Alcheringa: An Australasian Journal of Palaeontology. 25 (4): 425–437. Bibcode:2001Alch...25..425S. doi:10.1080/03115510108619232. S2CID 85185368.
  271. ^ Owen, R. (1857). "On the Fossil Vertebrae of a Serpent (Laophis crotaloides, Ow.) discovered by Capt. Spratt, R.N., in a Tertiary Formation at Salonica". Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society. 13 (1–2): 196–199. doi:10.1144/GSL.JGS.1857.013.01-02.28. S2CID 131142130.
  272. ^ Benjamin P. Kear (2014). "Rediscovery of Laophis crotaloides – the worlds largest viper?". researchgate.net. Retrieved 14 September 2022.
  273. ^ Bailon, Salvador; Bover, Pere; Quintana, Josep; Alcover, Josep Antoni (June 2010). "First fossil record of Vipera Laurenti 1768 'Oriental vipers complex' (Serpentes: Viperidae) from the Early Pliocene of the western Mediterranean islands". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 9 (4): 147–154. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2010.04.001.
  274. ^ Fachini, Thiago Schineider; Onary, Silvio; Palci, Alessandro; Lee, Michael S. Y.; Bronzati, Mario; Hsiou, Annie Schmaltz (18 December 2020). "Cretaceous Blind Snake from Brazil Fills Major Gap in Snake Evolution". iScience. 23 (12): 101834. Bibcode:2020iSci...23j1834F. doi:10.1016/j.isci.2020.101834. PMC 7718481. PMID 33305189.
  275. ^ a b c Molnar, Ralph E. (2004). Dragons in the Dust: The Paleobiology of the Giant Monitor Lizard Megalania. Indiana University Press. pp. 174–175. ISBN 978-0-253-34374-1. OCLC 52775128.
  276. ^ Fry, Bryan G.; Wroe, Stephen; Teeuwisse, Wouter; van Osch, Matthias J. P.; Moreno, Karen; Ingle, Janette; McHenry, Colin; Ferrara, Toni; Clausen, Phillip; Scheib, Holger; Winter, Kelly L.; Greisman, Laura; Roelants, Kim; van der Weerd, Louise; Clemente, Christofer J.; Giannakis, Eleni; Hodgson, Wayne C.; Luz, Sonja; Martelli, Paolo; Krishnasamy, Karthiyani; Kochva, Elazar; Kwok, Hang Fai; Scanlon, Denis; Karas, John; Citron, Diane M.; Goldstein, Ellie J. C.; Mcnaughtan, Judith E.; Norman, Janette A. (2 June 2009). "A central role for venom in predation by Varanus komodoensis (Komodo Dragon) and the extinct giant Varanus ( Megalania ) priscus". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (22): 8969–8974. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106.8969F. doi:10.1073/pnas.0810883106. PMC 2690028. PMID 19451641.
  277. ^ Irmis, Randall B. (27 June 2005). "Dragons in the Dust: the Paleobiology of the Giant Monitor Lizard Megalania". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 25 (2): 479. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0479:R]2.0.CO;2.
  278. ^ Colston, T. J.; Kulkarni, P.; Jetz, W.; Pyron, R. A. (2020). "Phylogenetic and spatial distribution of evolutionary diversification, isolation, and threat in turtles and crocodilians (non-avian archosauromorphs)". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 20 (1): 81. Bibcode:2020BMCEE..20...81C. doi:10.1186/s12862-020-01642-3. PMC 7350713. PMID 32650718.
  279. ^ a b Mike Everhart. "Marine turtles from the Western Interior Sea". Oceans of Kansas. Archived from the original on 7 April 2022.
  280. ^ Danilov, Igor G.; Obraztsova, Ekaterina M.; Arkhangelsky, Maxim S.; Ivanov, Alexey V.; Averianov, Alexander O. (July 2022). "Protostega gigas and other sea turtles from the Campanian of Eastern Europe, Russia". Cretaceous Research. 135: 105196. Bibcode:2022CrRes.13505196D. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2022.105196.
  281. ^ Derstler, K.; Leitch, A. D.; Larson, P. L.; Finsley, C.; Hill, L. (1993). "The World's Largest Turtles – The Vienna Archelon (4.6 m) and the Dallas Protostega (4.2 m), Upper Cretaceous of South Dakota and Texas". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 13 (Supplement to No. 3).
  282. ^ Kear, Benjamin P. (11 September 2006). "Reassessment of Cratochelone Berneyi Longman, 1915, a giant sea turtle from the Early Cretaceous of Australia". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 26 (3): 779–783. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[779:ROCBLA]2.0.CO;2.
  283. ^ H. F. Kaddumi (2006). "A new genus and species of gigantic marine turtles (Chelonioidea: Cheloniidae) from the Maastrichtian of the Harrana Fauna-Jordan" (PDF). PalArch's Journal of Vertebrate Palaeontology. 3 (1): 1–14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 February 2012. Retrieved 4 February 2010.
  284. ^ Kohler, R. (September 1995). "A new species of the fossil turtle Psephophorus (Order Testudines) from the Eocene of the South Island, New Zealand". Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 25 (3): 371–384. Bibcode:1995JRSNZ..25..371K. doi:10.1080/03014223.1995.9517495.
  285. ^ Naish, Darren (31 January 2024). "Megalochelys, Truly a Giant Tortoise". Tetrapod Zoology. Retrieved 30 May 2024.
  286. ^ a b c d e Rhodin, Anders; Thomson, Scott; Georgalis, Georgios; Karl, Hans-Volker; Danilov, Igor; Takahashi, Akio; de la Fuente, Marcelo; Bourque, Jason; Delfino, Massimo; Bour, Roger; Iverson, John; Shaffer, Bradley; Van Dijk, Peter Paul (2015). "Turtles and Tortoises of the World During the Rise and Global Spread of Humanity: First Checklist and Review of Extinct Pleistocene and Holocene Chelonians". Conservation Biology of Freshwater Turtles and Tortoises. Chelonian Research Monographs. Vol. 5. doi:10.3854/crm.5.000e.fossil.checklist.v1.2015. ISBN 978-0-9653540-9-7.
  287. ^ Pérez-García, Adán; Vlachos, Evangelos (1 November 2014). "New generic proposal for the European Neogene large testudinids (Cryptodira) and the first phylogenetic hypothesis for the medium and large representatives of the European Cenozoic record". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 172 (3): 653–719. doi:10.1111/zoj12183.
  288. ^ Pérez-García, Adán; Vlachos, Evangelos; Arribas, Alfonso (March 2017). "The last giant continental tortoise of Europe: A survivor in the Spanish Pleistocene site of Fonelas P-1". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 470: 30–39. Bibcode:2017PPP...470...30P. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2017.01.011. hdl:11336/53105.
  289. ^ a b Head, J. J.; Raza, S. M.; Gingerich, Philip D. (1999). "Drazinderetes tethyensis, a new large trionychid (Reptilia: Testudines) from the marine Eocene Drazinda Formation of the Sulaiman Range, Punjab (Pakistan)". Contributions from the Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan. 30 (7): 199–214. hdl:2027.42/48657.
  290. ^ Grande, Lance (14 June 2013). The Lost World of Fossil Lake: Snapshots from Deep Time. University of Chicago Press. p. 200. ISBN 978-0-226-92296-6.
  291. ^ Cadena, E.-A.; Scheyer, T.M.; Carrillo-Briceño, J.D.; Sánchez, R.; Aguilera-Socorro, O.A.; Vanegas, A.; Pardo, M.; Hansen, D.M.; Sánchez-Villagra, M.R. (12 February 2020). "The anatomy, paleobiology, and evolutionary relationships of the largest extinct side-necked turtle". Science Advances. 6 (7): eaay4593. Bibcode:2020SciA....6.4593C. doi:10.1126/sciadv.aay4593. PMC 7015691. PMID 32095528.
  292. ^ "Researchers reveal ancient giant turtle fossil". Phys.org. 17 May 2012. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  293. ^ Maugh II, Thomas H. (18 May 2012). "Researchers find fossil of a turtle that was size of a Smart car". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 23 September 2022. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  294. ^ Freeman, David (17 May 2012). "Car-Sized Reptile Lived Alongside Titanoboa, Scientists Say". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 23 September 2022. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  295. ^ Cadena, Edwin A.; Ksepka, Daniel T.; Jaramillo, Carlos A.; Bloch, Jonathan I. (June 2012). "New pelomedusoid turtles from the late Palaeocene Cerrejón Formation of Colombia and their implications for phylogeny and body size evolution". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 10 (2): 313–331. Bibcode:2012JSPal..10..313C. doi:10.1080/14772019.2011.569031.
  296. ^ Tong, Haiyan; Chanthasit, Phornphen; Naksri, Wilailuck; Ditbanjong, Pitaksit; Suteethorn, Suravech; Buffetaut, Eric; Suteethorn, Varavudh; Wongko, Kamonlak; Deesri, Uthumporn; Claude, Julien (30 November 2021). "Yakemys multiporcata n. g. n. sp., a Large Macrobaenid Turtle from the Basal Cretaceous of Thailand, with a Review of the Turtle Fauna from the Phu Kradung Formation and Its Stratigraphical Implications". Diversity. 13 (12): 630. doi:10.3390/d13120630.
  297. ^ Brown, Lauren (October 2019). "The enigmatic palaeoecology and palaeobiogeography of the giant, horned, fossil turtles of Australasia: a review and reanalysis of the data". Herpetological Journal. 29 (4): 252–263. doi:10.33256/hj29.4.252263.
  298. ^ Ross D.E. MacPhee, Hans-Dieter Sues (1999). Extinctions in near time: causes, contexts, and consequences. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers. p. 251. ISBN 978-0-306-46092-0.
  299. ^ "PLACODONTS: The bizarre "walrus-turtles" of the Triassic". Oceans of Kansas. Archived from the original on 30 January 2022.
  300. ^ Liu, Jun (27 November 2014). "A gigantic nothosaur (Reptilia: Sauropterygia) from the Middle Triassic of SW China and its implications for the Triassic biotic recovery". Scientific Reports. 4: 7142. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4E7142L. doi:10.1038/srep07142. PMC 4245812. PMID 25429609.
  301. ^ O'Gorman, J.P.; Santillana, S.; Otero, R.; Reguero, M. (October 2019). "A giant elasmosaurid (Sauropterygia; Plesiosauria) from Antarctica: New information on elasmosaurid body size diversity and aristonectine evolutionary scenarios". Cretaceous Research. 102: 37–58. Bibcode:2019CrRes.102...37O. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2019.05.004. S2CID 181725020.
  302. ^ Kubo, T.; Mitchell, M. T.; Henderson, D. M. (2012). "Albertonectes vanderveldei, a new elasmosaur (Reptilia, Sauropterygia) from the Upper Cretaceous of Alberta". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 32 (3): 557–572. Bibcode:2012JVPal..32..557K. doi:10.1080/02724634.2012.658124. S2CID 129500470.
  303. ^ Smith, Elliott (1 January 2020). "Revision of the Genus Styxosaurus and Relationships of the Late Cretaceous Elasmosaurids (Sauropterygia: Plesiosauria) of the Western Interior Seaway". Theses, Dissertations and Capstones.
  304. ^ Mike Everhart (2005). "Bite marks on an elasmosaur (Sauropterygia; Plesiosauria) paddle from the Niobrara Chalk (Upper Cretaceous) as probable evidence of feeding by the lamniform shark, Cretoxyrhina mantelli" (PDF). PalArch's Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 2 (2). Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2009.
  305. ^ a b c O'Gorman, J. P. (2016). "A Small Body Sized Non-Aristonectine Elasmosaurid (Sauropterygia, Plesiosauria) from the Late Cretaceous of Patagonia with Comments on the Relationships of the Patagonian and Antarctic Elasmosaurids". Ameghiniana. 53 (3): 245–268. doi:10.5710/AMGH.29.11.2015.2928. S2CID 133139689.
  306. ^ Hiller, Norton; Mannering, Al A.; Jones, Craig M.; Cruickshank, Arthur R. I. (30 September 2005). "The nature of Mauisaurus haasti Hector, 1874 (Reptilia: Plesiosauria)". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 25 (3): 588–601. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2005)025[0588:TNOMHH]2.0.CO;2.
  307. ^ Hiller, Norton; O’Gorman, José P.; Otero, Rodrigo A.; Mannering, Al A. (3 April 2017). "A reappraisal of the Late Cretaceous Weddellian plesiosaur genus Mauisaurus Hector, 1874". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 60 (2): 112–128. Bibcode:2017NZJGG..60..112H. doi:10.1080/00288306.2017.1281317.
  308. ^ Knutsen, Espen M.; Druckenmiller, Patric S.; Hurum, Jørn H. (2012). "A new species of Pliosaurus (Sauropterygia: Plesiosauria) from the Middle Volgian of central Spitsbergen, Norway". Norwegian Journal of Geology. 92: 235–258.
  309. ^ a b Buchy, M.-C.; Frey, E.; Stinnesbeck, W.; López-Oliva, J.G. (2003). "First occurrence of a gigantic pliosaurid plesiosaur in the late Jurassic (Kimmeridgian) of Mexico" (PDF). Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France. 174 (3): 271–278. doi:10.2113/174.3.271. hdl:2042/260.
  310. ^ a b McHenry, Colin Richard (2009). Devourer of Gods: the palaeoecology of the Cretaceous pliosaur Kronosaurus queenslandicus (Thesis). hdl:1959.13/935911.[page needed]
  311. ^ "Monster von Arramberri". Archived from the original on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  312. ^ "The Cumnor monster mandible". Archived from the original on 11 October 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  313. ^ Kear, Benjamin P. (June 2003). "Cretaceous marine reptiles of Australia: a review of taxonomy and distribution". Cretaceous Research. 24 (3): 277–303. Bibcode:2003CrRes..24..277K. doi:10.1016/S0195-6671(03)00046-6.
  314. ^ "The Largest Pliosaurid from North America". Archived from the original on 1 August 2016.
  315. ^ Massare, Judy A.; Wahl, William R.; Ross, Mike; Connely, Melissa V. (January 2014). "Palaeoecology of the marine reptiles of the Redwater Shale Member of the Sundance Formation (Jurassic) of central Wyoming, USA". Geological Magazine. 151 (1): 167–182. Bibcode:2014GeoM..151..167M. doi:10.1017/S0016756813000472.
  316. ^ Schumacher, Bruce A.; Carpenter, Kenneth; Everhart, Michael J. (May 2013). "A new Cretaceous Pliosaurid (Reptilia, Plesiosauria) from the Carlile Shale (middle Turonian) of Russell County, Kansas". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 33 (3): 613–628. Bibcode:2013JVPal..33..613S. doi:10.1080/02724634.2013.722576.
  317. ^ Desojo 2013, p. 20.
  318. ^ Desojo 2013, p. 22.
  319. ^ "Redondasaurus". New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science. Archived from the original on 20 December 2015. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
  320. ^ Hans-Dieter Sues (2019). The Rise of Reptiles: 320 Million Years of Evolution. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 176. ISBN 978-1-4214-2867-3. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  321. ^ a b Desojo 2013, p. 260.
  322. ^ a b Sterling J. Nesbitt (2011). "The Early Evolution of Archosaurs: Relationships and the Origin of Major Clades". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 352: 1–292. doi:10.1206/352.1. hdl:2246/6112. S2CID 83493714.
  323. ^ Nesbitt, Sterling J.; Brusatte, Stephen L.; Desojo, Julia B.; Liparini, Alexandre; De França, Marco A. G.; Weinbaum, Jonathan C.; Gower, David J. (January 2013). "Rauisuchia". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 379 (1): 241–274. Bibcode:2013GSLSP.379..241N. doi:10.1144/SP379.1.
  324. ^ Desojo 2013, p. 527.
  325. ^ Benton, Michael J. (2014). Vertebrate Palaeontology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 158. ISBN 978-1-118-40755-4.
  326. ^ Liparini, Alexandre; Schultz, Cesar L. (January 2013). "A reconstruction of the thigh musculature of the extinct pseudosuchian Prestosuchus chiniquensis from the Dinodontosaurus Assemblage Zone (Middle Triassic Epoch), Santa Maria 1 Sequence, southern Brazil". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 379 (1): 441–468. Bibcode:2013GSLSP.379..441L. doi:10.1144/SP379.20.
  327. ^ Parker, W.G. (2005). "A new species of the Late Triassic aetosaur Desmatosuchus (Archosauria: Pseudosuchia)". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 4 (4): 327–340. Bibcode:2005CRPal...4..327P. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2005.03.002.
  328. ^ Desojo, Julia B.; Heckert, Andrew B.; Martz, Jeffrey W.; Parker, William G.; Schoch, Rainer R.; Small, Bryan J.; Sulej, Tomasz (January 2013). "Aetosauria: a clade of armoured pseudosuchians from the Upper Triassic continental beds". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 379 (1): 203–239. Bibcode:2013GSLSP.379..203D. doi:10.1144/SP379.17.
  329. ^ von Baczko, M. Belén; Desojo, Julia. B.; Gower, David J.; Ridgely, Ryan; Bona, Paula; Witmer, Lawrence M. (October 2022). "New digital braincase endocasts of two species of Desmatosuchus and neurocranial diversity within Aetosauria (Archosauria: Pseudosuchia)". The Anatomical Record. 305 (10): 2415–2434. doi:10.1002/ar.24798. hdl:11336/152847. PMID 34662509.
  330. ^ Casey M. Holliday and Nicholas M. Gardner (2012). "A New Eusuchian Crocodyliform with Novel Cranial Integument and Its Significance for the Origin and Evolution of Crocodylia". PLOS ONE. 7 (1): e30471. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...730471H. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0030471. PMC 3269432. PMID 22303441.
  331. ^ Gayford, Joel H.; Engelman, Russell K.; Sternes, Phillip C.; Itano, Wayne M.; Bazzi, Mohamad; Collareta, Alberto; Salas-Gismondi, Rodolfo; Shimada, Kenshu (2 September 2024). "Cautionary tales on the use of proxies to estimate body size and form of extinct animals". Ecology and Evolution. 14 (9): e70218. Bibcode:2024EcoEv..1470218G. doi:10.1002/ece3.70218. ISSN 2045-7758. PMC 11368419. PMID 39224151.
  332. ^ Bocquentin, Jean; Melo, Janira (2006). "Stupendemys souzai sp. nov (Pleurodira, Podocnemididae) from the Miocene-Pliocene of the Solimões Formation, Brazil". Revista Brasileira de Paleontologia. 9 (2): 187–192. doi:10.4072/rbp.2006.2.02.
  333. ^ a b c d "Крупнейшие крокодиломорфы". vk.com (in Russian). Retrieved 6 September 2022.
  334. ^ a b Paiva, Ana Laura S.; Godoy, Pedro L.; Souza, Ray B.B.; Klein, Wilfried; Hsiou, Annie S. (October 2022). "Body size estimation of Caimaninae specimens from the Miocene of South America". Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 118: 103970. Bibcode:2022JSAES.11803970P. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2022.103970.
  335. ^ Cidade, Giovanne M.; Rincón, Ascanio D.; Solórzano, Andrés (3 October 2021). "New cranial and postcranial elements of Mourasuchus (Alligatoroidea: Caimaninae) from the late Miocene of Venezuela and their palaeobiological implications". Historical Biology. 33 (10): 2387–2399. Bibcode:2021HBio...33.2387C. doi:10.1080/08912963.2020.1795844.
  336. ^ Schwimmer, David R. (2002). "The Size of Deinosuchus". King of the Crocodylians: The Paleobiology of Deinosuchus. Indiana University Press. pp. 42–63. ISBN 978-0-253-34087-0.
  337. ^ Lucas, Spencer G.; Sullivan, Robert M.; Spielmann, Justin A. (2006). "The Giant Crocodylian Deinosuchus from the Upper Cretaceous of the San Juan Basin, New Mexico" (PDF). New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin. 35. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 June 2009. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
  338. ^ Stout, Jeremy B. (23 October 2020). "New early Pleistocene Alligator (Eusuchia: Crocodylia) from Florida bridges a gap in Alligator evolution". Zootaxa. 4868 (1): zootaxa.4868.1.3. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.4868.1.3. PMID 33311408.
  339. ^ Head, J. J. (2001). "Systematics and body size of the gigantic, enigmatic crocodyloid Rhamphosuchus crassidens, and the faunal history of Siwalik Group (Miocene) crocodylians". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 21 (Supplement to No. 3): 1–117. doi:10.1080/02724634.2001.10010852. S2CID 220414868.
  340. ^ a b c d e Martin, Jeremy E.; Antoine, Pierre-Olivier; Perrier, Vincent; Welcomme, Jean-Loup; Metais, Gregoire; Marivaux, Laurent (4 July 2019). "A large crocodyloid from the Oligocene of the Bugti Hills, Pakistan" (PDF). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 39 (4): e1671427. Bibcode:2019JVPal..39E1427M. doi:10.1080/02724634.2019.1671427.
  341. ^ Riff, Douglas; Aguilera, Orangel A. (June 2008). "The world's largest gharials Gryposuchus: description of G. croizati n. sp. (Crocodylia, Gavialidae) from the Upper Miocene Urumaco Formation, Venezuela". Paläontologische Zeitschrift. 82 (2): 178–195. Bibcode:2008PalZ...82..178R. doi:10.1007/bf02988408.
  342. ^ Storrs, G. W. (2003). Late Miocene-Early Pliocene crocodilian fauna of Lothagam, southwest Turkana Basin, Kenya. In: Lothagam: The Dawn of Humanity in Eastern Africa pp. 137–159. New York. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11870-8.
  343. ^ Brochu, C. A.; Storrs, G. W. (2012). "A giant crocodile from the Plio-Pleistocene of Kenya, the phylogenetic relationships of Neogene African crocodylines, and the antiquity of Crocodylus in Africa". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 32 (3): 587. Bibcode:2012JVPal..32..587B. doi:10.1080/02724634.2012.652324. S2CID 85103427.
  344. ^ "Crocodylus anthropophagus". Palaeocritti.com. Archived from the original on 14 June 2016.
  345. ^ Ewen Callaway (24 February 2010). "Monster crocodile was ancient human nightmare". New Scientist. Archived from the original on 7 December 2021.
  346. ^ Delfino, Massimo; De Vos, John (March 2014). "A giant crocodile in the Dubois Collection from the Pleistocene of Kali Gedeh (Java)". Integrative Zoology. 9 (2): 141–147. doi:10.1111/1749-4877.12065. hdl:2318/141647. PMID 24673759.
  347. ^ "Crikey! Massive prehistoric croc emerges from South East Queensland". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 9 January 2021.
  348. ^ Wroe, S.; Field, J.H.; Archer, M.; Grayson, D.K.; Price, G.J.; Louys, J.; Faith, T.; Webb, G.E.; Davidson, I.; Mooney, S.D. (2013). "Climate change frames debate over the extinction of megafauna in Sahul (Pleistocene Australia-New Guinea)". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 110 (22): 8777–8781. Bibcode:2013PNAS..110.8777W. doi:10.1073/pnas.1302698110. PMC 3670326. PMID 23650401.
  349. ^ Wroe, Stephen (2002). "A review of terrestrial mammalian and reptilian carnivore ecology in Australian fossil faunas, and factors influencing their diversity: the myth of reptilian domination and its broader ramifications". Australian Journal of Zoology. 50 (1): 1. doi:10.1071/zo01053.
  350. ^ Flannery, T. F. (1990). "Pleistocene faunal loss: implications of the aftershock for Australia's past and future". Archaeology in Oceania. 25 (2): 45–55. doi:10.1002/j.1834-4453.1990.tb00232.x.
  351. ^ Sobbe, Ian H.; Price, Gilbert J.; Knezour, Robert A. (2013). "A ziphodont crocodile from the late Pleistocene King Creek catchment, Darling Downs, Queensland". Memoirs of the Queensland Museum. 52 (2): 601–606.
  352. ^ Storrs, G. W.; Efimov, M. B. (2000). "Mesozoic crocodyliforms of north-central Eurasia". In Michael J. Benton; Mikhail A. Shishkin; David M. Unwin; Evgenii N. Kurochkin (eds.). The Age of Dinosaurs in Russia and Mongolia. Cambridge University Press. pp. 402–419.
  353. ^ Lyon, Gabrielle (9 December 2001). "Fact Sheet". SuperCroc. Project Exploration. Retrieved 22 September 2007.
  354. ^ O’Brien, Haley D; Lynch, Leigha M; Vliet, Kent A; Brueggen, John; Erickson, Gregory M; Gignac, Paul M (January 2019). "Crocodylian Head Width Allometry and Phylogenetic Prediction of Body Size in Extinct Crocodyliforms". Integrative Organismal Biology. 1 (1): obz006. doi:10.1093/iob/obz006. PMC 7671145. PMID 33791523.
  355. ^ Martin, J. E.; Lauprasert, K.; Buffetaut, E.; Liard, R. & Suteethorn, V. (2013). "A large pholidosaurid in the Phu Kradung Formation of north-eastern Thailand". Palaeontology. 57 (4): 757–769. doi:10.1111/pala.12086. S2CID 128482290.
  356. ^ Buffetaut, E. (1978). "Les Dyrosauridae (Crocodylia, Mesosuchia) des phosphates de l'Eocène inférieur de Tunisie: Dyrosaurus, Rhabdognathus, Phosphatosaurus". Géologie Méditerranéenne. 5 (2): 237–256. doi:10.3406/geolm.1978.1046.
  357. ^ Naish, D. 2002. Fossils explained 34: Crocodilians. Geology Today 2: 71–77. Archived copy from 24 January 2019.
  358. ^ a b Molnar RE, de Vasconcellos FM (2016). "Cenozoic dinosaurs in South America – revisited". Memoirs of Museum Victoria. 74: 363–377. doi:10.24199/j.mmv.2016.74.25.
  359. ^ a b Martin, Jeremy E.; Pochat-Cottilloux, Yohan; Laurent, Yves; Perrier, Vincent; Robert, Emmanuel; Antoine, Pierre-Olivier (28 October 2022). "Anatomy and phylogeny of an exceptionally large sebecid (Crocodylomorpha) from the middle Eocene of southern France". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 42 (4). Bibcode:2022JVPal..42E3828M. doi:10.1080/02724634.2023.2193828.
  360. ^ Riff, D.; Kellner, A.W.A. (2011). "Baurusuchid crocodyliforms as theropod mimics: clues from the skull and appendicular morphology of Stratiotosuchus maxhechti (Upper Cretaceous of Brazil)". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 163 (s1): s37–s56. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2011.00713.x.
  361. ^ Dal Sasso, C.; Pasini, G.; Fleury, G.; Maganuco, S. (2017). "Razanandrongobe sakalavae, a gigantic mesoeucrocodylian from the Middle Jurassic of Madagascar, is the oldest known notosuchian". PeerJ. 5: e3481. doi:10.7717/peerj.3481. PMC 5499610. PMID 28690926.
  362. ^ "Giant croc had teeth like a T. rex". BBC News. BBC. 4 July 2017. Retrieved 22 April 2020.
  363. ^ Cortés, Dirley; Larsson, Hans C.E.; Maxwell, Erin E.; Parra Ruge, Mary Luz; Patarroyo, Pedro; Wilson, Jeffrey A. (6 October 2019). "An Early Cretaceous Teleosauroid (Crocodylomorpha: Thalattosuchia) from Colombia". Ameghiniana. 56 (5): 365. doi:10.5710/amgh.26.09.2019.3269. S2CID 210110716.
  364. ^ a b Young, Mt; Rabi, M; Bell, Ma; Foffa, D; Steel, L; Sachs, S; Peyer, K (2016). "Big-headed marine crocodyliforms and why we must be cautious when using extant species as body length proxies for long-extinct relatives". Palaeontologia Electronica. doi:10.26879/648.
  365. ^ Johnson, Michela M.; Young, Mark T.; Brusatte, Stephen L. (2020). "The phylogenetics of Teleosauroidea (Crocodylomorpha, Thalattosuchia) and implications for their ecology and evolution". PeerJ. 8: e9808. doi:10.7717/peerj.9808. PMC 7548081. PMID 33083104.
  366. ^ Young, M. T.; Brusatte, S. L.; De Andrade, M. B.; Desojo, J. B.; Beatty, B. L.; Steel, L.; Fernández, M. S.; Sakamoto, M.; Ruiz-Omeñaca, J. I.; Schoch, R. R. (2012). Butler, Richard J (ed.). "The Cranial Osteology and Feeding Ecology of the Metriorhynchid Crocodylomorph Genera Dakosaurus and Plesiosuchus from the Late Jurassic of Europe". PLOS ONE. 7 (9): e44985. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...744985Y. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044985. PMC 3445579. PMID 23028723.
  367. ^ Young, Mark T.; de Andrade, Marco Brandalise; Brusatte, Stephen L.; Sakamoto, Manabu; Liston, Jeff (May 2013). "The oldest known metriorhynchid super-predator: a new genus and species from the Middle Jurassic of England, with implications for serration and mandibular evolution in predacious clades". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 11 (4): 475–513. Bibcode:2013JSPal..11..475Y. doi:10.1080/14772019.2012.704948.
  368. ^ Young, Mark T.; Brusatte, Stephen L.; de Andrade, Marco Brandalise; Desojo, Julia B.; Beatty, Brian L.; Steel, Lorna; Fernández, Marta S.; Sakamoto, Manabu; Ruiz-Omeñaca, Jose Ignacio; Schoch, Rainer R. (18 September 2012). "The Cranial Osteology and Feeding Ecology of the Metriorhynchid Crocodylomorph Genera Dakosaurus and Plesiosuchus from the Late Jurassic of Europe". PLOS ONE. 7 (9): e44985. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...744985Y. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044985. PMC 3445579. PMID 23028723.
  369. ^ a b Zanno, Lindsay E.; Drymala, Susan; Nesbitt, Sterling J.; Schneider, Vincent P. (19 March 2015). "Early crocodylomorph increases top tier predator diversity during rise of dinosaurs". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 9276. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E9276Z. doi:10.1038/srep09276. PMC 4365386. PMID 25787306.
  370. ^ Nesbitt, Sterling J.; Irmis, Randall B.; Lucas, Spencer G.; Hunt, Adrian P. (2005). "A giant crocodylomorph from the Upper Triassic of New Mexico". Paläontologische Zeitschrift. 79 (4): 471–478. Bibcode:2005PalZ...79..471N. doi:10.1007/bf02988373. S2CID 128541365.
  371. ^ Crocodylomorpha. Crocodiles and their relatives, archive copy from 20 June 2022.
  372. ^ Zanno, Lindsay E.; Drymala, Susan; Nesbitt, Sterling J.; Schneider, Vincent P. (19 March 2015). "Early crocodylomorph increases top tier predator diversity during rise of dinosaurs". Scientific Reports. 5: 9276. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E9276Z. doi:10.1038/srep09276. PMC 4365386. PMID 25787306.
  373. ^ a b Witton, M. P.; Naish, D. (2008). McClain, Craig R (ed.). "A Reappraisal of Azhdarchid Pterosaur Functional Morphology and Paleoecology". PLOS ONE. 3 (5): e2271. Bibcode:2008PLoSO...3.2271W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0002271. PMC 2386974. PMID 18509539.
  374. ^ Buffetaut, E.; Grigorescu, D.; Csiki, Z. (2002). "A new giant pterosaur with a robust skull from the latest Cretaceous of Romania" (PDF). Naturwissenschaften. 89 (4): 180–184. Bibcode:2002NW.....89..180B. doi:10.1007/s00114-002-0307-1. PMID 12061403. S2CID 15423666.
  375. ^ a b Paul, Gregory S. (2022). The Princeton Field Guide to Pterosaurs. Princeton University Press. pp. 155–172. doi:10.1515/9780691232218. ISBN 978-0-691-23221-8. S2CID 249332375.
  376. ^ a b Takanobu Tsuihiji; Brian Andres; Patrick M O'Connor; Mahito Watabe; Khishigjav Tsogtbaatar; Mainbayar Buuvei (2017). "Gigantic pterosaurian remains from the Upper Cretaceous of Mongolia". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 37 (5): e1361431. Bibcode:2017JVPal..37E1431T. doi:10.1080/02724634.2017.1361431. S2CID 134424023.
  377. ^ "Ancient Winged Terror Was One of the Largest Animals to Fly". 31 October 2017. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019.
  378. ^ Kellner, A. W. A.; Campos, D. A.; Sayão, J. M.; Saraiva, A. N. A. F.; Rodrigues, T.; Oliveira, G.; Cruz, L. A.; Costa, F. R.; Silva, H. P.; Ferreira, J. S. (2013). "The largest flying reptile from Gondwana: A new specimen of Tropeognathus cf. T. Mesembrinus Wellnhofer, 1987 (Pterodactyloidea, Anhangueridae) and other large pterosaurs from the Romualdo Formation, Lower Cretaceous, Brazil". Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências. 85 (1): 113–135. doi:10.1590/S0001-37652013000100009. PMID 23538956.
  379. ^ Rodrigues, T.; Kellner, A. (2013). "Taxonomic review of the Ornithocheirus complex (Pterosauria) from the Cretaceous of England". ZooKeys (308): 1–112. Bibcode:2013ZooK..308....1R. doi:10.3897/zookeys.308.5559. PMC 3689139. PMID 23794925.
  380. ^ "Fossil of largest Jurassic pterosaur found on Skye". BBC News. 22 February 2022. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
  381. ^ Natalia Jagielska; Michael O’Sullivan; Gregory F. Funston; et al. (February 2022). "A skeleton from the Middle Jurassic of Scotland illuminates an earlier origin of large pterosaurs". Current Biology. 32: 1–8. doi:10.1016/J.CUB.2022.01.073. ISSN 0960-9822. Wikidata Q110984418.
  382. ^ a b Spindler, Frederik; Ifrim, Christina (2021). "Die Spur einer Spur – ein möglicher erster Flugsaurier aus Ettling Trace of a trace – a putative first pterosaur from the Ettling locality". Archaeopteryx. 37: 75–83.
  383. ^ a b Andres, Brian; Clark, James M.; Xing, Xu (29 January 2010). "A new rhamphorhynchid pterosaur from the Upper Jurassic of Xinjiang, China, and the phylogenetic relationships of basal pterosaurs". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 30 (1): 163–187. Bibcode:2010JVPal..30..163A. doi:10.1080/02724630903409220.
  384. ^ a b Brownstein, C.D. (2022). "High morphological disparity in a bizarre Paleocene fauna of predatory freshwater reptiles". BMC Ecol Evol. 22 (34): 34. doi:10.1186/s12862-022-01985-z. PMC 8935759. PMID 35313822.
  385. ^ Matsumoto, R.; Evans, S. E. (2010). "Choristoderes and the freshwater assemblages of Laurasia". Journal of Iberian Geology. 36 (2): 253–274. Bibcode:2010JIbG...36..253M. doi:10.5209/rev_JIGE.2010.v36.n2.11.
  386. ^ De-Oliveira, Tiane M.; Pinheiro, Felipe L.; Stock Da-Rosa, Átila Augusto; Dias-Da-Silva, Sérgio; Kerber, Leonardo (8 April 2020). "A new archosauromorph from South America provides insights on the early diversification of tanystropheids". PLOS ONE. 15 (4): e0230890. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1530890D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0230890. PMC 7141609. PMID 32267850.
  387. ^ Zhao, Li-Jun; Sato, Tamaki; Liu, Jun; Li, Chun; Wu, Xiao-Chun (2010). "A new skeleton of Miodentosaurus brevis (Diapsida: Thallatosauria) with a further study of the taxon" (PDF). Vertebrata PalAsiatica. 48 (1): 1–10.
  388. ^ Liu, Jun; Zhao, Li-Jun; Li, Chun; He, Tao (March 2013). "Osteology of Concavispina biseridens (Reptilia, Thalattosauria) from the Xiaowa Formation (Carnian), Guanling, Guizhou, China". Journal of Paleontology. 87 (2): 341–350. Bibcode:2013JPal...87..341L. doi:10.1666/12-059R1.1.
  389. ^ Lomax, Dean R.; De la Salle, Paul; Massare, Judy A.; Gallois, Ramues (9 April 2018). "A giant Late Triassic ichthyosaur from the UK and a reinterpretation of the Aust Cliff 'dinosaurian' bones". PLOS ONE. 13 (4): e0194742. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1394742L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0194742. PMC 5890986. PMID 29630618.
  390. ^ Pickrell, John (2018). "Prehistoric "Sea Monster" May Be Largest That Ever Lived". Archived from the original on 31 May 2022.
  391. ^ Lomax, Dean R.; Salle, Paul de la; Perillo, Marcello; Reynolds, Justin; Reynolds, Ruby; Waldron, James F. (17 April 2024). "The last giants: New evidence for giant Late Triassic (Rhaetian) ichthyosaurs from the UK". PLOS ONE. 19 (4): e0300289. Bibcode:2024PLoSO..1900289L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0300289. PMC 11023487. PMID 38630678.
  392. ^ "Triassic Giant". Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  393. ^ a b Martin Sander, P.; Pérez De Villar, Pablo Romero; Furrer, Heinz; Wintrich, Tanja (October 2021). "Giant Late Triassic ichthyosaurs from the Kössen Formation of the Swiss Alps and their paleobiological implications". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 41 (6). Bibcode:2021JVPal..41E6017M. doi:10.1080/02724634.2021.2046017.
  394. ^ a b c Sander, P. Martin; Griebeler, Eva Maria; Klein, Nicole; Juarbe, Jorge Velez; Wintrich, Tanja; Revell, Liam J.; Schmitz, Lars (24 December 2021). "Early giant reveals faster evolution of large body size in ichthyosaurs than in cetaceans". Science. 374 (6575): eabf5787. doi:10.1126/science.abf5787. PMID 34941418.
  395. ^ a b "Researchers have found a 205-million-year-old jawbone from one of the largest animals that ever lived". Newsweek. 9 April 2018. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022.
  396. ^ Currie, P. J. (1981). "Hovasaurus boulei, an aquatic eosuchian from the Upper Permian of Madagascar". Palaeontologia Africana. 24. hdl:10539/16296.
  397. ^ a b c Marco Romano; Fabio Manucci; Bruce Rubidge; Marc J. Van den Brandt (17 June 2021). "Volumetric Body Mass Estimate and in vivo Reconstruction of the Russian Pareiasaur Scutosaurus karpinskii". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 9. doi:10.3389/fevo.2021.692035. hdl:11573/1634310.
  398. ^ McGhee, George R. Jr. (7 August 2018). Carboniferous Giants and Mass Extinction: The Late Paleozoic Ice Age World. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-54338-5. Retrieved 16 October 2019 – via Google Books.
  399. ^ Piñeiro, Graciela; Núñez Demarco, Pablo; Meneghel, Melitta D. (17 May 2016). "The ontogenetic transformation of the mesosaurid tarsus: a contribution to the origin of the primitive amniotic astragalus". PeerJ. 4: e2036. doi:10.7717/peerj.2036. PMC 4878385. PMID 27231658.
  400. ^ Dodick, J.T.; Modesto, S.P. (1995). "The cranial anatomy of the captorhinid reptile Labidosaurikos meachami from the Lower Permian of Oklahoma". Palaeontology. 38 (3): 687.
  401. ^ Patricia Vickers Rich; Thomas Hewitt Rich; Mildred Adams Fenton; Carroll Lane (15 January 2020). The Fossil Book: A Record of Prehistoric Life. Dover Publications. p. 444. ISBN 978-0-486-83855-7. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  402. ^ Lu, J., Li, T., Zhong, S., Azuma, Y., Fujita, M., Dong, Z., and Ji, Q. (2007). "New yunnanosaurid dinosaur (Dinosauria, Prosauropoda) from the Middle Jurassic Zhanghe Formation of Yuanmou, Yunnan Province of China". Memoir of the Fukui Prefectural Dinosaur Museum, 6: 1–15.
  403. ^ a b c Kenneth Carpenter (2006). "Biggest of the big: a critical re-evaluation of the mega-sauropod Amphicoelias fragillimus". In "Paleontology and Geology of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation". New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin. 36: 131–138.
  404. ^ a b Paul, Gregory (31 December 2019). "Determining the Largest Known Land Animal: A Critical Comparison of Differing Methods for Restoring the Volume and Mass of Extinct Animals". Annals of Carnegie Museum. 85 (4): 335. doi:10.2992/007.085.0403.
  405. ^ Galton, Peter M.; Ayyasami, Krishnan (July 2017). "Purported latest bone of a plated dinosaur (Ornithischia: Stegosauria), a 'dermal plate' from the Maastrichtian (Upper Cretaceous) of southern India". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Abhandlungen. 285 (1): 91–96. doi:10.1127/njgpa/2017/0671.
  406. ^ a b Molina-Pérez & Larramendi 2020, p. 46.
  407. ^ Paul, Gregory S.; Larramendi, Asier (11 April 2023). "Body mass estimate of Bruhathkayosaurus and other fragmentary sauropod remains suggest the largest land animals were about as big as the greatest whales". Lethaia. 56 (2): 1–11. Bibcode:2023Letha..56..2.5P. doi:10.18261/let.56.2.5. S2CID 259782734.
  408. ^ Mike Taylor (2019). "Supersaurus, Ultrasaurus and Dystylosaurus in 2019, part 2: what we found in Utah". svpow.com. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022.
  409. ^ a b Molina-Pérez & Larramendi 2020, p. 36.
  410. ^ Mike Taylor (16 September 2016). "How horrifying was the neck of Barosaurus?". svpow.com. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022.
  411. ^ a b Curtice, Brian (2021). "New Dry Mesa Dinosaur Quarry Supersaurus vivianae (Jensen 1985) axial elements provide additional insight into its phylogenetic relationships and size, suggesting an animal that exceeded 39 meters in length" (PDF). p. 92. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 October 2022.
  412. ^ Mike Taylor (16 June 2019). "The size of the BYU 9024 animal". svpow.com. Archived from the original on 16 April 2022.
  413. ^ Molina-Pérez & Larramendi 2020, p. 156.
  414. ^ Peter Matthews (1992). The Guinness Book of Records. Guinness Publishing. p. 42. ISBN 9780851129785.
  415. ^ Tim Footman, Mark C. Young (May 2001). Guinness World Records 2001. Bantam Books. p. 276. ISBN 978-0-553-58375-5.
  416. ^ Molina-Pérez & Larramendi 2020, p. 32.
  417. ^ a b Molina-Pérez & Larramendi 2020, p. 55.
  418. ^ Wedel, Mathew J.; Cifelli, R. L.; Sanders, R. K. (2000). "Osteology, paleobiology, and relationships of the sauropod dinosaur Sauroposeidon" (PDF). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 45: 343–388. S2CID 59141243. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2020.
  419. ^ Guinness World Records. Bantam Books. 2004. p. 110. ISBN 9780553587128.
  420. ^ Paul, G.S. (1988). "The brachiosaur giants of the Morrison and Tendaguru with a description of a new subgenus, Giraffatitan, and a comparison of the world's largest dinosaurs" (PDF). Hunteria. 2 (3): 1–14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 June 2022.
  421. ^ a b Paul, G.S., 2010, The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs, Princeton University Press.
  422. ^ "Giant dinosaur slims down... a bit". BBC News. 10 August 2017. Archived from the original on 21 September 2022. Retrieved 17 October 2022.
  423. ^ a b Otero, Alejandro; Carballido, José L.; Pérez Moreno, Agustín (2020). "The appendicular osteology of Patagotitan mayorum (Dinosauria, Sauropoda)". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 40 (4). e1793158. Bibcode:2020JVPal..40E3158O. doi:10.1080/02724634.2020.1793158. S2CID 225012747.
  424. ^ "Don't believe the hype: Patagotitan was not bigger than Argentinosaurus". Sauropod Vertebra Picture of the Week. 9 August 2017. Retrieved 18 November 2018.
  425. ^ Lacovara, Kenneth J.; Lamanna, M. C.; Ibiricu, L. M.; Poole, J. C.; Schroeter, E. R.; Ullmann, P. V.; Voegele, K. K.; Boles, Z. M.; Carter, A. M.; Fowler, E. K.; Egerton, V. M.; Moyer, A. E.; Coughenour, C. L.; Schein, J. P.; Harris, J. D.; Martínez, R. D.; Novas, F. E. (4 September 2014). "A Gigantic, Exceptionally Complete Titanosaurian Sauropod Dinosaur from Southern Patagonia, Argentina". Scientific Reports. 4 (1): 6196. Bibcode:2014NatSR...4E6196L. doi:10.1038/srep06196. PMC 5385829. PMID 25186586.
  426. ^ Rafael Royo-Torres; Alberto Cobos; Luis Alcalá (2006). "A Giant European Dinosaur and a New Sauropod Clade" (PDF). Science. 314 (5807): 1925–1927. Bibcode:2006Sci...314.1925R. doi:10.1126/science.1132885. PMID 17185599. S2CID 9343711.
  427. ^ a b c d e f g Holtz, Thomas R. Jr. (2012). "Winter 2011 Appendix". Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 October 2022.
  428. ^ Molina-Pérez & Larramendi 2020, p. 28.
  429. ^ "Paper describing NHMUK PV R5937, a Tendaguru brachiosaurid known as "The Archbishop"". GitHub. 25 August 2022.
  430. ^ de Lapparent, A. F. (1960). "Les dinosauriens du "continental intercalaire" du Sahara central"" [The dinosaurs of the "continental intercalaire" of the central Sahara] (PDF). Mémoires de la Société Géologique de France. Nouvelle Séries (in French). 39 (1–6). Translated by Carrano, Matthew: 1–57.
  431. ^ Mannion, P. D.; Upchurch, Paul; Barnes, Rosie N.; Mateus, Octávio (2013). "Osteology of the Late Jurassic Portuguese sauropod dinosaur Lusotitan atalaiensis (Macronaria) and the evolutionary history of basal titanosauriforms" (PDF). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 168: 98–206. doi:10.1111/zoj.12029.
  432. ^ Nima. "Is the French Monster a Euhelopodid?". paleoking.blogspot.com.
  433. ^ Persons, W. Scott; Currie, Philip J.; Erickson, Gregory M. (April 2020). "An Older and Exceptionally Large Adult Specimen of Tyrannosaurus rex". The Anatomical Record. 303 (4): 656–672. doi:10.1002/ar.24118. PMID 30897281.
  434. ^ Calvo, Jorge O.; Coria, Rodolfo (1998). "New specimen of Giganotosaurus Carolinii" (PDF). GAIA: 117–122. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2008.
  435. ^ Henderson DM (1 January 1999). "Estimating the masses and centers of mass of extinct animals by 3-D mathematical slicing". Paleobiology. 25 (1): 88–106.
  436. ^ Coria, R. A.; Currie, P. J. (2002). "The braincase of Giganotosaurus carolinii (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Upper Cretaceous of Argentina". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 22 (4): 802–811. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2002)022[0802:TBOGCD]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 85678725.
  437. ^ Coria, R. A.; Salgado, L. (1995). "A new giant carnivorous dinosaur from the Cretaceous of Patagonia". Nature. 377 (6546): 225–226. Bibcode:1995Natur.377..224C. doi:10.1038/377224a0. S2CID 30701725.
  438. ^ Calvo, J.O.; Coria, R.A. (1998). "New specimen of Giganotosaurus carolinii (CORIA & SALGADO, 1995), supports it as the largest theropod ever found" (PDF). Gaia. 15: 117–122. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2008.
  439. ^ Therrien, F.; Henderson, D.M. (2007). "My theropod is bigger than yours...or not: estimating body size from skull length in theropods". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 27 (1): 108–115. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2007)27[108:MTIBTY]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 86025320.
  440. ^ Sereno, Paul C; Myhrvold, Nathan; Henderson, Donald M; Fish, Frank E; Vidal, Daniel; Baumgart, Stephanie L; Keillor, Tyler M; Formoso, Kiersten K; Conroy, Lauren L (30 November 2022). "Spinosaurus is not an aquatic dinosaur". eLife. 11. doi:10.7554/eLife.80092. PMC 9711522. PMID 36448670.
  441. ^ Simon, D. J. (2014). Giant Dinosaur (theropod) Eggs of the Oogenus Macroelongatoolithus (Elongatoolithidae) from Southeastern Idaho: Taxonomic, Paleobiogeographic, and Reproductive Implications (PDF) (Doctoral Dissertation). Bozeman: Montana State University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2021.
  442. ^ a b Pu, H.; Zelenitsky, D.K.; Lü, J.; Currie, P.J.; Carpenter, K.; Xu, L.; Koppelhus, E.B.; Jia, S.; Xiao, L.; Chuang, H.; Li, T.; Kundrát, M.; Shen, C. (2017). "Perinate and eggs of a giant caenagnathid dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of central China". Nature Communications. 8: 14952. Bibcode:2017NatCo...814952P. doi:10.1038/ncomms14952. PMC 5477524. PMID 28486442.
  443. ^ Vickaryous, M.K., Maryanska, T., & Weishampel, D.B. 2004. Ankylosauria. In: Weishampel, D.B., Dodson, P., & Osmólska, H. (Eds.). The Dinosauria (2nd edition). Berkeley: University of California Press. Pp. 363–392.
  444. ^ Coombs, Walter P. (December 1978). "Theoretical Aspects of Cursorial Adaptations in Dinosaurs". The Quarterly Review of Biology. 53 (4): 393–418. doi:10.1086/410790. S2CID 84505681.
  445. ^ Paul, Gregory S. (2010). The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 244. ISBN 978-0-691-13720-9.
  446. ^ Holtz, Thomas R. Jr. (2008). Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages (PDF). New York: Random House. pp. updated appendix. ISBN 978-0-375-82419-7.
  447. ^ Longrich, N.R. (2011). "Titanoceratops ouranos, a giant horned dinosaur from the Late Campanian of New Mexico". Cretaceous Research. 32 (3): 264–276. Bibcode:2011CrRes..32..264L. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2010.12.007.
  448. ^ a b Zhao, X.; Li, D.; Han, G.; Hao, H.; Liu, F.; Li, L.; Fang, X. (2007). "Zhuchengosaurus maximus from Shandong Province". Acta Geoscientia Sinica. 28 (2): 111–122. doi:10.1007/s10114-005-0808-x. S2CID 119700784.
  449. ^ Morris, William J. (1981). "A new species of hadrosaurian dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous of Baja California: ?Lambeosaurus laticaudus". Journal of Paleontology. 55 (2): 453–462.
  450. ^ Prieto-Márquez, A.; Chiappe, L. M.; Joshi, S. H. (2012). Dodson, Peter (ed.). "The lambeosaurine dinosaur Magnapaulia laticaudus from the Late Cretaceous of Baja California, Northwestern Mexico". PLOS ONE. 7 (6): e38207. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...738207P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0038207. PMC 3373519. PMID 22719869.
  451. ^ Morris, William J. (1981). "A new species of hadrosaurian dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous of Baja California: ?Lambeosaurus laticaudus". Journal of Paleontology. 55 (2): 453–462.
  452. ^ a b Paul, Greg (2010). "The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs". New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 335.
  453. ^ Wosik, M.; Evans, D.C. (2022). "Osteohistological and taphonomic life-history assessment of Edmontosaurus annectens (Ornithischia: Hadrosauridae) from the Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) Ruth Mason dinosaur quarry, South Dakota, United States, with implication for ontogenetic segregation between juvenile and adult hadrosaurids". Journal of Anatomy. 241 (2): 272–296. doi:10.1111/joa.13679. PMC 9296034. PMID 35801524.
  454. ^ Paul, G.S., 2010, The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs, Princeton University Press p. 304
  455. ^ Conti, S.; Vila, B.; Sellés, A. G.; Galobart, À.; Benton, M. J.; Prieto- Márquez, A. (2020). "The oldest lambeosaurine dinosaur from Europe: Insights into the arrival of Tsintaosaurini" (PDF). Cretaceous Research. 107: 40. Bibcode:2020CrRes.10704286C. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2019.104286. hdl:1983/be876efb-979c-4237-94f9-5f8d80121f7e. S2CID 208195457. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 April 2021.
  456. ^ Kirkland, J.I.; Hernández-Rivera, R.; Gates, T.; Paul, G.S.; Nesbitt, S.; Serrano-Brañas, C.I.; Garcia-de la Garza, J.P. (2006). "Large hadrosaurine dinosaurs from the latest Campanian of Coahuila, Mexico". In Lucas, S.G.; Sullivan, R.M. (eds.). Late Cretaceous Vertebrates from the Western Interior (PDF). New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science Bulletin. Vol. 35. Albuquerque: New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science. pp. 299–315. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2019.
  457. ^ Powers, Marc (11 July 2004). "Holden signs state dinosaur bill". The Daily Dunkin Democrat. Archived from the original on 4 February 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  458. ^ Powers, Marc (19 February 2004). "A bone to pick for Missouri". Southeast Missourian. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  459. ^ Paul, Gregory S. (2016). The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs. Princeton University Press. p. 342. ISBN 978-1-78684-190-2. OCLC 985402380.
  460. ^ Verdú, F.J.; Godefroit, P.; Royo-Torres, R.; Cobos, A.; Alcalá, L. (2017). "Individual variation in the postcranial skeleton of the Early Cretaceous Iguanodon bernissartensis (Dinosauria: Ornithopoda)". Cretaceous Research. 74: 65–86. Bibcode:2017CrRes..74...65V. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2017.02.006.
  461. ^ Gasulla, J.M.; Escaso, F.; Narváez, I.; Sanz, J.L.; Ortega, F. (2022). "New Iguanodon bernissartensis Axial Bones (Dinosauria, Ornithopoda) from the Early Cretaceous of Morella, Spain". Diversity. 14 (2): 63. doi:10.3390/d14020063.
  462. ^ Nye, E.; Feist-Burkhardt, S.; Horne, D.J.; Ross, A.J.; Whittaker, J.E. (2008). "The palaeoenvironment associated with a partial Iguanodon skeleton from the Upper Weald Clay (Barremian, Early Cretaceous) at Smokejacks Brickworks (Ockley, Surrey, UK), based on palynomorphs and ostracods". Cretaceous Research. 29 (3): 417–444. Bibcode:2008CrRes..29..417N. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2008.01.004.
  463. ^ McDonald, A. T.; Kirkland, J. I.; DeBlieux, D. D.; Madsen, S. K.; Cavin, J.; Milner, A. R. C.; Panzarin, L. (2010). "New Basal Iguanodonts from the Cedar Mountain Formation of Utah and the Evolution of Thumb-Spiked Dinosaurs". PLOS ONE. 5 (11): e14075. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...514075M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0014075. PMC 2989904. PMID 21124919.
  464. ^ Paul, Gregory S. (2016). The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs 2nd edition. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 319.
  465. ^ Beall, A. (2017). "This "ugly" dinosaur had giant scissor-like teeth". Alphr. Dennis Publishing. It was around five metres long, I guess.
  466. ^ Paul, Gregory S. (2016). The Princeton Field Guide to Dinosaurs. Princeton University Press. p. 312. ISBN 978-1-78684-190-2. OCLC 985402380.
  467. ^ a b c d Grealy, Alicia; Miller, Gifford H.; Phillips, Matthew J.; Clarke, Simon J.; Fogel, Marilyn; Patalwala, Diana; Rigby, Paul; Hubbard, Alysia; Demarchi, Beatrice; Collins, Matthew; Mackie, Meaghan; Sakalauskaite, Jorune; Stiller, Josefin; Clarke, Julia A.; Legendre, Lucas J. (28 February 2023). "Molecular exploration of fossil eggshell uncovers hidden lineage of giant extinct bird". Nature Communications. 14 (1): 914. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14..914G. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-36405-3. PMC 9974994. PMID 36854679.
  468. ^ a b c d e f g h i Murray, P. F. & Vickers-Rich, P. (2004)
  469. ^ a b c Degrange, F. J., Noriega, J. I., & Areta, J. I. (2012). Diversity and paleobiology of the Santacrucian birds. Early Miocene paleobiology in Patagonia: high-latitude paleocommunities of the Santa Cruz Formation, 138–155.
  470. ^ a b Lazaro, Enrico de (28 June 2019). "Giant Birds Roamed Europe Two Million Years Ago | Paleontology | Sci-News.com". Sci.News: Breaking Science News. Retrieved 3 March 2023.
  471. ^ a b Molina-Pérez & Larramendi 2019, p. 179.
  472. ^ Buffetaut, Eric; Angst, Delphine (2017). "How Large was the Giant Ostrich of China?". EVOLUÇÃO – Revista de Geistória e Pré-História. 2 (1): 6–8. Retrieved 9 January 2023.
  473. ^ Brennan, Imogen (19 February 2016). "Bones from ancestor of 'giant duck' discovered in Australia". PM. www.abc.net.au.
  474. ^ Tambussi, C. P., & Degrange, F. J. (2013). The dominance of zoophagous birds: just a cliché?. In South American and Antarctic Continental Cenozoic Birds (pp. 87–102). Springer, Dordrecht.
  475. ^ Gould, G. C.; Quitmyer, I. R. (2005). "Titanis walleri: Bones of Contention" (PDF). Bulletin of the Florida Museum of Natural History. 45 (4): 201–229. doi:10.58782/flmnh.xumx1681.
  476. ^ a b Eric Buffetaut und Delphine Angst: Stratigraphic distribution of large flightless birds in the Palaeogene of Europe and its palaeobiological and palaeogeographical implications. Earth-Science Reviews 32 (2), 2014, S. 394–408.
  477. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Meat Weights and Nutritional Yield Values for New Zealand Archaeofauna
  478. ^ a b Rubén Molina-Pérez; Asier Larramendi; David Connolly; Gonzalo Ángel Ramírez Cruz; Andrey Atuchin (25 June 2019). Dinosaur Facts and Figures: The Theropods and Other Dinosauriformes. Princeton University Press. p. 282. ISBN 978-0-691-19059-4. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
  479. ^ Hospitaleche, Carolina A. (2014). "New giant penguin bones from Antarctica: Systematic and paleobiological significance". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 13 (7): 555–560. Bibcode:2014CRPal..13..555A. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2014.03.008. hdl:11336/32571.
  480. ^ a b c Alexander, David E. (24 July 2007). "Ancient Argentavis soars again". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (30): 12233–12234. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10412233A. doi:10.1073/pnas.0705515104. PMC 1941455. PMID 17640902.
  481. ^ a b c Early Miocene Paleobiology in Patagonia: High-Latitude Paleocommunities of Patagonia" [1], geredigeerd door Sergio F. Vizcaíno, Sergio F. Vizcno, Richard F. Kay en M. Susana Bargo
  482. ^ Amadon (1947), Rasmussen et al. (1987, 2001)
  483. ^ Fisher, Harvey I. (1945). "Locomotion in the Fossil Vulture Teratornis". The American Midland Naturalist. 33 (3): 725–742. doi:10.2307/2421186. JSTOR 2421186.
  484. ^ Ksepka, Daniel T. (7 July 2014). "Flight performance of the largest volant bird". PNAS. 111 (29): 10624–10629. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11110624K. doi:10.1073/pnas.1320297111. PMC 4115518. PMID 25002475.
  485. ^ Perkins, Sid (9 April 2015). "New species of 'terror bird' discovered". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aab2465. Retrieved 14 April 2015.
  486. ^ a b Areta, J. I.; Noriega, J. I.; Agnolin, F. (2007). "A giant darter (Pelecaniformes: Anhingidae) from the Upper Miocene of Argentina and weight calculation of fossil Anhingidae". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie – Abhandlungen. 243 (3): 343–350. doi:10.1127/0077-7749/2007/0243-0343. hdl:11336/80812.
  487. ^ a b Northcote, E. Marjorie (April 1982). "SIZE, FORM AND HABIT OF THE EXTINCT MALTESE SWAN CYGNUS FALCONERI". Ibis. 124 (2): 148–158. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919x.1982.tb03753.x.
  488. ^ a b Meijer HJ, R ADue (2010). "A new species of giant marabou stork (Aves: Ciconiiformes) from the Pleistocene of Liang Bua, Flores (Indonesia)". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 160 (4): 707–724. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2010.00616.x.
  489. ^ Angst, D.; Buffetaut, E.; Abourachid, A. (March 2011). "The end of the fat dodo? A new mass estimate for Raphus cucullatus". Naturwissenschaften. 98 (3): 233–236. Bibcode:2011NW.....98..233A. doi:10.1007/s00114-010-0759-7. PMID 21240603. S2CID 29215473.
  490. ^ Worthy, Trevor H.; Hand, Suzanne J.; Archer, Michael; Scofield, R. Paul; De Pietri, Vanesa L. (August 2019). "Evidence for a giant parrot from the Early Miocene of New Zealand". Biology Letters. 15 (8): 20190467. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2019.0467. PMC 6731479. PMID 31387471.
  491. ^ a b California Academy of Sciences – Science Under Sail Archived 7 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Calacademy.org
  492. ^ a b c Colin Tudge (20 October 2009). The Bird: A Natural History of Who Birds Are, Where They Came From, and How They Live. Crown. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-307-45976-3. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  493. ^ a b c d e Rubén Molina-Pérez; Asier Larramendi; David Connolly; Gonzalo Ángel Ramírez Cruz; Andrey Atuchin (25 June 2019). Dinosaur Facts and Figures: The Theropods and Other Dinosauriformes. Princeton University Press. p. 281. ISBN 978-0-691-19059-4. Retrieved 29 August 2022.
  494. ^ Walker, Cyril A.; Dyke, Gareth J. (2009). "Euenantiornithine Birds from the Late Cretaceous of El Brete (argentina)". Irish Journal of Earth Sciences. 27: 15–62. doi:10.1353/ijes.2009.a810006. JSTOR 25780698.
  495. ^ Chiappe, Luis M. "Enantiornithine (Aves) tarsometatarsi from the Cretaceous Lecho Formation of northwestern Argentina. American Museum novitates; no. 3083". Biodiversity Heritage Library. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
  496. ^ Atterholt, Jessie; Hutchison, J. Howard; O'Connor, Jingmai K. (13 November 2018). "The most complete enantiornithine from North America and a phylogenetic analysis of the Avisauridae". PeerJ. 6: e5910. doi:10.7717/peerj.5910. PMC 6238772. PMID 30479894.
  497. ^ Zhou, Zhonghe; Clarke, Julia; Zhang, Fucheng (May 2008). "Insight into diversity, body size and morphological evolution from the largest Early Cretaceous enantiornithine bird". Journal of Anatomy. 212 (5): 565–77. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2008.00880.x. PMC 2409080. PMID 18397240.
  498. ^ Buffetaut, E.; Le Loeuff, J. (1998). "A new giant ground bird from the Upper Cretaceous of southern France". Journal of the Geological Society, London. 155 (155): 1–4. Bibcode:1998JGSoc.155....1B. doi:10.1144/gsjgs.155.1.0001. S2CID 128496095.
  499. ^ Musser, Anne. "Stirton's Thunder Bird". The Australian Museum. Archived from the original on 31 August 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  500. ^ Handley, Warren D.; Chinsamy, Anusuya; Yates, Adam M.; Worthy, Trevor H. (2 September 2016). "Sexual dimorphism in the late Miocene mihirung Dromornis stirtoni (Aves: Dromornithidae) from the Alcoota Local Fauna of central Australia". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 36 (5): e1180298. Bibcode:2016JVPal..36E0298H. doi:10.1080/02724634.2016.1180298.
  501. ^ Witmer, Lawrence; Rose, Kenneth (1991). "Biomechanics of the jaw apparatus of the gigantic Eocene bird Diatryma: Implications for diet and mode of life" (PDF). Paleobiology. 17 (2): 95–120. Bibcode:1991Pbio...17...95W. doi:10.1017/S0094837300010435. S2CID 18212799. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 July 2010.
  502. ^ Gerald Mayr: Gastornithidae. In: Gerald Mayr: Paleogene Fossil Birds. Springer-Verlag, Berlin und Heidelberg, 2009, S. 44–47.
  503. ^ Delphine Angst und Eric Buffetaut: Palaeobiology of Giant Flightless Birds. Oxford, 2017, S. 1–282 (S. 173–214).
  504. ^ Meijer, Hanneke Johanna Maria (January 2014). "A peculiar anseriform (Aves: Anseriformes) from the Miocene of Gargano (Italy)". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 13 (1): 19–26. Bibcode:2014CRPal..13...19M. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2013.08.001.
  505. ^ T. H. Worthy, Richard N. Holdaway (2002). The Lost World of the Moa. Prehistoric Life of New Zealand. Indiana University Press. p. 232. ISBN 978-0-253-34034-4. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
  506. ^ Snow, D. W.; Perrins, C. M. (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic (Concise ed.). OUP. ISBN 0-19-854099-X.
  507. ^ Watanabe, Junya; Matsuoka, Hiroshige (2 November 2015). "Flightless diving duck (Aves, Anatidae) from the Pleistocene of Shiriya, northeast Japan". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 35 (6): e994745. Bibcode:2015JVPal..35E4745W. doi:10.1080/02724634.2014.994745.
  508. ^ Watanabe, Junya (July 2017). "Quantitative discrimination of flightlessness in fossil Anatidae from skeletal proportions". The Auk. 134 (3): 672–695. doi:10.1642/auk-17-23.1. hdl:2433/227150.
  509. ^ Gibb, John (27 July 2017). "At last, NZ's own swan". Otago Daily Times. Archived from the original on 17 August 2017. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
  510. ^ Matsuoka H, Hasegawa Y (2022). "Annakacygna, a new genus for two remarkable flightless swans(Aves, Anatidae, Cygnini)from the Miocene of Gunma, central Japan: With a note on the birds' food niche shift and specialization of wings for parental care action" (PDF). Bulletin of Gunma Museum of Natural History. 26: 1–30.
  511. ^ Worthy, Trevor H.; Olson, Storrs L. (2002). "Relationships, adaptations, and habits of the extinct duck "Euryanas" finschi" (PDF). Notornis. 49 (1): 1–17. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 October 2007.
  512. ^ Olson, Storrs L. (1999). "A new species of pelican (Aves: Pelecanidae) from the Lower Pliocene of North Carolina and Florida" (PDF). Proceedings of the Biological Society of Washington. 112 (3): 503–509. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 October 2022.
  513. ^ Callahan, D. (2014). A History of Birdwatching in 100 Objects. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc. p. 15. ISBN 978-1408-1-8618-3.
  514. ^ "Giant bird found on hobbit island". 7 December 2010 – via BBC News.
  515. ^ Hulbert Jr., Richard C. & Valdes, Natali (2013). "Florida Vertebrate Fossils: Ciconia maltha". Florida Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 30 September 2015.
  516. ^ G. Mayr; Thomas Lechner; M. Böhme (14 July 2020). "A skull of a very large crane from the late Miocene of Southern Germany, with notes on the phylogenetic interrelationships of extant Gruinae". Journal of Ornithology. 161 (4): 923–933. Bibcode:2020JOrni.161..923M. doi:10.1007/s10336-020-01799-0. S2CID 220505689.
  517. ^ Smith, N. Adam (February 2016). "Evolution of body mass in the Pan-Alcidae (Aves, Charadriiformes): the effects of combining neontological and paleontological data". Paleobiology. 42 (1): 8–26. Bibcode:2016Pbio...42....8S. doi:10.1017/pab.2015.24.
  518. ^ Wilson, Laura; Chin, Karen; Cumbaa, Stephen; Dyke, Gareth (1 March 2011). "A high latitude hesperornithiform (Aves) from Devon Island: palaeobiogeography and size distribution of North American hesperornithiforms". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 9 (1): 9–23. Bibcode:2011JSPal...9....9W. doi:10.1080/14772019.2010.502910. S2CID 83749554.
  519. ^ Ksepka, Daniel T. (22 July 2014). "Flight performance of the largest volant bird". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (29): 10624–10629. Bibcode:2014PNAS..11110624K. doi:10.1073/pnas.1320297111. PMC 4115518. PMID 25002475.
  520. ^ Chatterjee, S.; Templin, R. J.; Campbell, K. E. (24 July 2007). "The aerodynamics of Argentavis, the world's largest flying bird from the Miocene of Argentina". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (30): 12398–12403. Bibcode:2007PNAS..10412398C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0702040104. PMC 1906724. PMID 17609382.
  521. ^ Campbell, Kenneth E. Jr.; Tonni, E. P. (1983). "Size and locomotion in teratorns" (PDF). Auk. 100 (2): 390–403. doi:10.1093/auk/100.2.390.
  522. ^ Campbell, Kenneth; Scott, Eric; Springer, Kathleen (1999). "A new genus for the incredible teratorn". Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology. 89: 169–175 – via ResearchGate.
  523. ^ Campbell, Kenneth E.; Tonni, Eduardo P. (April 1983). "Size and Locomotion in Teratorns (Aves: Teratornithidae)". The Auk. 100 (2): 390–403. doi:10.1093/auk/100.2.390.
  524. ^ Alvarenga, Herculano M.F.; Höfling, Elizabeth (2003). "Systematic revision of the Phorusrhacidae (Aves: Ralliformes)". Papéis Avulsos de Zoologia. 43 (4). doi:10.1590/S0031-10492003000400001.
  525. ^ a b Ksepka, Daniel T. (2014). "Flights of fancy in avian evolution". American Scientist. 102 (1): 39. doi:10.1511/2014.106.36. JSTOR 43707746.
  526. ^ Tambussi, Claudia P.; Degrange, Federico J. (2013). "Neogene Birds of South America". South American and Antarctic Continental Cenozoic Birds. Springer Briefs in Earth System Sciences. Springer. pp. 59–86. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5467-6_7. ISBN 978-94-007-5466-9.
  527. ^ Croft, Darin A. (2016). Horned Armadillos and Rafting Monkeys: The Fascinating Fossil Mammals of South America. Indiana University Press. p. 120. ISBN 978-0-253-02084-0. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
  528. ^ Alvarenga, Herculano M. F.; Höfling, Elizabeth (2003). "Systematic revision of the Phorusrhacidae (Aves: Ralliformes)". Papéis Avulsos de Zoologia. 43 (4): 55–91. doi:10.1590/S0031-10492003000400001.
  529. ^ Reed Wicander, James S. Monroe (2015). Historical Geology. Cengage Learning. p. 368. ISBN 9781305480766. Retrieved 27 August 2022.
  530. ^ Maas, P. "Recently Extinct Animals – Species Info – Haast's Eagle". The Sixth Extinction. Archived from the original on 20 January 2013. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  531. ^ "Haast's Eagle". Paleobiology and Biodiversity Research Group. Archived from the original on 5 May 2014. Retrieved 19 April 2013.
  532. ^ Worthy, T. & Holdaway, R., The Lost World of the Moa: Prehistoric Life of New Zealand. Indiana University Press (2003), ISBN 978-0-253-34034-4
  533. ^ Brathwaite, D. H. (December 1992). "Notes on the weight, flying ability, habitat, and prey of Haast's Eagle (Harpagornis moorei)" (PDF). Notornis. 39 (4). Ornithological Society of New Zealand: 239–247. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2014.
  534. ^ Darren Naish (27 January 2008). "Titan-hawks and other super-raptors". Science Blogs. Archived from the original on 25 September 2022. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
  535. ^ Steadman, David W.; Almonte Milan, Juan N.; Mychajliw, Alexis M. (13 August 2019). "An Extinct Eagle (Aves: Accipitridae) from the Quaternary of Hispaniola". Journal of Raptor Research. 53 (3): 319. doi:10.3356/JRR-18-769.
  536. ^ Suárez, William; Olson, Storrs L. (December 2007). "The Cuban Fossil Eagle Aquila Borrasi Arredondo: A Scaled-Up Version of the Great Black-Hawk Buteogallus Urubitinga (Gmelin)". Journal of Raptor Research. 41 (4): 288–298. doi:10.3356/0892-1016(2007)41[288:TCFEAB]2.0.CO;2.
  537. ^ Olson, Storrs L. (2007). "The 'Walking Eagle' Wetmoregyps Daggetti Miller: A Scaled-up Version of the Savanna Hawk (Buteogallus meridionalis)". Ornithological Monographs (63): 110–114. doi:10.2307/40166902. JSTOR 40166902.
  538. ^ Holdaway, R. N.; Worthy, T. H. (January 1997). "A reappraisal of the late Quaternary fossil vertebrates of Pyramid Valley Swamp, North Canterbury, New Zealand". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 24 (1): 69–121. doi:10.1080/03014223.1997.9518107.
  539. ^ Rahaman, Sadekur (8 November 2014). "Top 10 Largest Birds in The World (Living) » AllTopTens.com".
  540. ^ a b Wood, Gerald The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats (1983) ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9
  541. ^ Marcos Cenizo; Jorge Noriega; Juan Diederle; Esteban Soibelzon; Leopoldo Soibelzon; Sergio Rodriguez; Elisa Beilinson (2018). "An unexpected large Crested Tinamou (Eudromia, Tinamidae, Aves) near to Last Glacial Maximum (MIS 2, late Pleistocene) of the Argentine Pampas". Historical Biology. 32 (3): 330–338. doi:10.1080/08912963.2018.1491568. hdl:11336/84901. S2CID 91851921.
  542. ^ Zelenkov, N. V.; Lavrov, A. V.; Startsev, D. B.; Vislobokova, I. A.; Lopatin, A. V. (2019). "A giant early Pleistocene bird from eastern Europe: unexpected component of terrestrial faunas at the time of early Homo arrival". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 39 (2): e1605521. Bibcode:2019JVPal..39E5521Z. doi:10.1080/02724634.2019.1605521. S2CID 198384367.
  543. ^ Buffetaut, Eric; Angst, Delphine (26 January 2021). "A Giant Ostrich from the Lower Pleistocene Nihewan Formation of North China, with a Review of the Fossil Ostriches of China". Diversity. 13 (2): 47. doi:10.3390/d13020047.
  544. ^ Gerald Mayr (31 October 2016). Avian Evolution. The Fossil Record of Birds and Its Paleobiological Significance. Wiley. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-119-02076-9. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
  545. ^ Cecile Mourer-Chauvire, Denis Geraads (January 2008). "The Struthionidae and Pelagornithidae (Aves: Struthioniformes, Odontopterygiformes) from the late Pliocene of Ahl Al Oughlam, Morocco". Oryctos. 7: 169–194.
  546. ^ Vermeij, Geerat J. (2004). Nature: An Economic History. Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-11527-3
  547. ^ Angst, D.; Buffetaut, E.; Abourachid, A. (2011). "The end of the fat dodo? A new mass estimate for Raphus cucullatus". Naturwissenschaften. 98 (3): 233–236. Bibcode:2011NW.....98..233A. doi:10.1007/s00114-010-0759-7. PMID 21240603. S2CID 29215473.
  548. ^ Vickers-Rich, Patricia; Knight, Frank (1985). Kadimakara – Extinct Vertebrates of Australia. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-909674-26-7.
  549. ^ Rinderknecht, A.; Noriega, J.I. (2002). "Un nuevo género de Anhingidae (Aves: Pelecaniformes) del Plioceno–Pleistoceno del Uruguay (Formación San José)". Ameghiniana. 39 (2): 183–191. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 May 2022. Retrieved 5 May 2022.
  550. ^ Mori, Hirotsugu; Miyata, Kazunori (April 2021). "Early Plotopteridae Specimens (Aves) from the Itanoura and Kakinoura Formations (Latest Eocene to Early Oligocene), Saikai, Nagasaki Prefecture, Western Japan". Paleontological Research. 25 (2). doi:10.2517/2020PR018.
  551. ^ Griscom, Ludlow (1929). "Studies from the Dwight collection of Guatemala birds. 1". American Museum Novitates (379). hdl:2246/5418.
  552. ^ "Imperial Woodpecker Campephilus imperialis ". BirdLife International. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2011.
  553. ^ Worthy, Trevor H.; Hand, Suzanne J.; Archer, Michael; Scofield, R. Paul; De Pietri, Vanesa L. (2019). "Evidence for a giant parrot from the early Miocene of New Zealand". Biology Letters. 15 (8). doi:10.1098/rsbl.2019.0467. PMC 6731479. PMID 31387471.
  554. ^ a b c d Ksepka, Daniel T.; Field, Daniel J.; Heath, Tracy A.; Pett, Walker; Thomas, Daniel B.; Giovanardi, Simone; Tennyson, Alan J.D. (March 2023). "Largest-known fossil penguin provides insight into the early evolution of sphenisciform body size and flipper anatomy". Journal of Paleontology. 97 (2): 434–453. Bibcode:2023JPal...97..434K. doi:10.1017/jpa.2022.88.
  555. ^ Acosta Hospitaleche, Carolina (1 October 2014). "New giant penguin bones from Antarctica: Systematic and paleobiological significance". Comptes Rendus Palevol. 13 (7): 555–560. Bibcode:2014CRPal..13..555A. doi:10.1016/j.crpv.2014.03.008. hdl:11336/32571.
  556. ^ Jadwiszczak, Piotr (2001). "Body size of Eocene Antarctic penguins". Polish Polar Research. 22 (2): 147–158.
  557. ^ Schmid, Randolph E. (25 June 2007). "Giant Penguins May Have Roamed Peru". Associated Press via Washington Post. Retrieved 29 June 2007.
  558. ^ Arredondo, Oscar (1976) translated Olson, Storrs L. The Great Predatory Birds of the Pleistocene of Cuba pp. 169–187 in "Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology number 27; Collected Papers in Avian Paleontology Honoring the 90th Birthday of Alexander Wetmore"
  559. ^ a b Daniel L. Levy, Rebecca Heald (August 2015). "Biological Scaling Problems and Solutions in Amphibians". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 8 (1): a019166. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a019166. PMC 4691792. PMID 26261280.
  560. ^ Rodrigo A. Otero; Paulina Jimenez-Huidobrob; Sergio Soto-Acuna; Roberto E. Yury-Yanez (2014). "Evidence of a giant helmeted frog (Australobatrachia, Calyptocephalellidae) from Eocene levels of the Magallanes Basin, southernmost Chile". Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 55: 133–140. Bibcode:2014JSAES..55..133O. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2014.06.010.
  561. ^ Evans, Susan E.; Groenke, Joseph R.; Jones, Marc E. H.; Turner, Alan H.; Krause, David W. (2014). "New Material of Beelzebufo, a Hyperossified Frog (Amphibia: Anura) from the Late Cretaceous of Madagascar". PLOS ONE. 9 (1). e87236. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...987236E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0087236. PMC 3905036. PMID 24489877.
  562. ^ Naylor, Bruce G. (1981). "Cryptobranchid Salamanders from the Paleocene and Miocene of Saskatchewan". Copeia. 1981 (1): 76–86. doi:10.2307/1444042. JSTOR 1444042.
  563. ^ Wilson, Gregory P.; Clemens, William A.; Horner, John R.; Hartman, Joseph H. (21 January 2014). Through the End of the Cretaceous in the Type Locality of the Hell Creek Formation in Montana and Adjacent Areas. Geological Society of America. ISBN 978-0-8137-2503-1.
  564. ^ Laurie J. Vitt, Janalee P. Caldwell (25 March 2013). Herpetology. An Introductory Biology of Amphibians and Reptiles. Elsevier Science. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-12-386920-3. Retrieved 25 September 2022.
  565. ^ Georg F. Striedter, R. Glenn Northcutt (2020). Brains Through Time. A Natural History of Vertebrates. Oxford University Press. p. 276. ISBN 978-0-19-512568-9. Retrieved 25 September 2022.
  566. ^ Panchen, A. L. (1977). "On Anthracosaurus russelli Huxley (Amphibia: Labyrinthodontia) and the Family Anthracosauridae". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 279 (968): 447–512. Bibcode:1977RSPTB.279..447P. doi:10.1098/rstb.1977.0096. JSTOR 2417840.
  567. ^ Marjanović, David; Laurin, Michel (4 January 2019). "Phylogeny of Paleozoic limbed vertebrates reassessed through revision and expansion of the largest published relevant data matrix". PeerJ. 6: e5565. doi:10.7717/peerj.5565. PMC 6322490. PMID 30631641.
  568. ^ Panchen, A. L. (1972). "The Skull and Skeleton of Eogyrinus attheyi Watson (Amphibia: Labyrinthodontia)". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 263 (851): 279–326. Bibcode:1972RSPTB.263..279P. doi:10.1098/rstb.1972.0002. JSTOR 2417176.
  569. ^ Schoch, R.R. (1999). "Comparative osteology of Mastodonsaurus giganteus (Jaeger, 1828) from the Middle Triassic (Lettenkeuper: Longobardian) of Germany (Baden-Württemberg, Bayern, Thüringen)" (PDF). Stuttgarter Beiträge zur Naturkunde Serie B. 278: 1–175.
  570. ^ Steyer, J. Sébastien; Damiani, Ross (May 2005). "A giant brachyopoid temnospondyl from the Upper Triassic or Lower Jurassic of Lesotho". Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France. 176 (3): 243–248. doi:10.2113/176.3.243.
  571. ^ Liu, Huaibao P.; Bergström, Stig M.; Witzke, Brian J.; Briggs, Derek E. G.; McKay, Robert M.; Ferretti, Annalisa (2017). "Exceptionally preserved conodont apparatuses with giant elements from the Middle Ordovician Winneshiek Konservat-Lagerstätte, Iowa, USA". Journal of Paleontology. 91 (3): 493–511. Bibcode:2017JPal...91..493L. doi:10.1017/jpa.2016.155. S2CID 132698401.
  572. ^ "Heterostraci systematics, phylogenetics and macroevolution: investigating evolutionary patterns of extinct jawless vertebrates | Research Explorer | The University of Manchester". www.research.manchester.ac.uk. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
  573. ^ Turner, Susan (1986). "Thelodus macintoshi Stetson 1928, the largest known thelodont (Agnatha: Thelodonti)". Breviora. 486: 1–18.
  574. ^ Albert, James S.; Johnson, Derek M.; Knouft, Jason H. (2009). "Fossils provide better estimates of ancestral body size than do extant taxa in fishes". Acta Zoologica. 90: 357–384. doi:10.1111/j.1463-6395.2008.00364.x.
  575. ^ Ørvig, Tor (1967). "Some new acanthodian material from the Lower Devonian of Europe". Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Zoology. 47 (311): 131–153. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.1967.tb01400.x.
  576. ^ a b c d e Engelman, Russell K. (2023). "A Devonian Fish Tale: A New Method of Body Length Estimation Suggests Much Smaller Sizes for Dunkleosteus terrelli (Placodermi: Arthrodira)". Diversity. 15 (3): 318. doi:10.3390/d15030318.
  577. ^ Gilbert Powell Larwood, Paul D. Taylor (1990). Major Evolutionary Radiations. Systematics Association. p. 310. ISBN 978-0-19-857718-8. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  578. ^ Bulletin 70. Ohio. Division of Geological Survey. 1996. p. 290. ISBN 9780931079054. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  579. ^ Charlie Underwood; Martha Richter; Zerina Johanson (2019). Evolution and Development of Fishes. Cambridge University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-107-17944-8. Retrieved 31 August 2022.
  580. ^ Bashford Dean (1895). Fishes, Living and Fossil: An Outline of Their Forms and Probable Relationships. Macmillan and Company. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-02-238982-3. Retrieved 28 August 2022.
  581. ^ Shimada, K.; Chandler, R. E.; Lam, O. L. T.; Tanaka, T.; Ward, D. J. (2016). "A new elusive otodontid shark (Lamniformes: Otodontidae) from the lower Miocene, and comments on the taxonomy of otodontid genera, including the "megatoothed" clade". Historical Biology. 29 (5): 1–11. doi:10.1080/08912963.2016.1236795. S2CID 89080495.
  582. ^ a b Shimada, Kenshu (2019). "The size of the megatooth shark, Otodus megalodon (Lamniformes: Otodontidae), revisited". Historical Biology. 33 (7): 1–8. doi:10.1080/08912963.2019.1666840. S2CID 208570844.
  583. ^ a b Cooper, J. A.; Pimiento, C.; Ferrón, H. G.; Benton, M. J. (2020). "Body dimensions of the extinct giant shark Otodus megalodon: a 2D reconstruction". Scientific Reports. 10 (14596): 14596. Bibcode:2020NatSR..1014596C. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-71387-y. PMC 7471939. PMID 32883981.
  584. ^ deGruy, Michael (2006). Perfect Shark (TV-Series). BBC (UK).
  585. ^ Perez, Victor; Leder, Ronny; Badaut, Teddy (2021). "Body length estimation of Neogene macrophagous lamniform sharks (Carcharodon and Otodus) derived from associated fossil dentitions". Palaeontologia Electronica. 24 (1): 1–28. doi:10.26879/1140.
  586. ^ Pimiento, C.; MacFadden, B. J.; Clements, C. F.; Varela, S.; Jaramillo, C.; Velez-Juarbe, J.; Silliman, B. R. (2016). "Geographical distribution patterns of Carcharocles megalodon over time reveal clues about extinction mechanisms". Journal of Biogeography. 43 (8): 1645–1655. Bibcode:2016JBiog..43.1645P. doi:10.1111/jbi.12754. S2CID 55776834.
  587. ^ Pimiento, C.; Balk, M. A. (2015). "Body-size trends of the extinct giant shark Carcharocles megalodon: a deep-time perspective on marine apex predators". Paleobiology. 41 (3): 479–490. Bibcode:2015Pbio...41..479P. doi:10.1017/pab.2015.16. PMC 4541548. PMID 26321775.
  588. ^ Renz, Mark (2002). Megalodon: Hunting the Hunter. Lehigh Acres, Florida: PaleoPress. pp. 1–159. ISBN 978-0-9719477-0-2. OCLC 52125833.
  589. ^ Portell, Roger W.; Hubbell, Gordon; Donovan, Stephen K.; Green, Jeremy L.; Harper, David A. T.; Pickerill, Ron (January 2008). "Miocene sharks in the Kendeace and Grand Bay formations of Carriacou, The Grenadines, Lesser Antilles". Caribbean Journal of Science. 44 (3): 279–286. doi:10.18475/cjos.v44i3.a2.
  590. ^ Gottfried, MD; Compagno, LJV; Bowman, SC (1996). "Size and skeletal anatomy of the giant megatooth shark Carcharodon megalodon". In Klimley; Ainley (eds.). Great White Sharks: The Biology of Carcharodon carcharias. San Diego, California: Academic Press. pp. 55–89. ISBN 978-0-12-415031-7.
  591. ^ Gottfried M.D., Fordyce R.E (2001). "An associated specimen of Carcharodon angustidens (Chondrichthyes, Lamnidae) from the Late Oligocene of New Zealand, with comments on Carcharodon interrelationships". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 21 (4): 730–739. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2001)021[0730:AASOCA]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 86092645.
  592. ^ Andres, Lutz. "Megatooth Fossils Found at the Calvert Cliffs of Maryland". Archived from the original on 26 August 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
  593. ^ Amalfitano, Jacopo; Dalla Vecchia, Fabio Marco; Carnevale, Giorgio; Fornaciari, Eliana; Roghi, Guido; Giusberti, Luca (September 2022). "Morphology and paleobiology of the Late Cretaceous large-sized shark Cretodus crassidens (Dixon, 1850) (Neoselachii; Lamniformes)". Journal of Paleontology. 96 (5): 1166–1188. Bibcode:2022JPal...96.1166A. doi:10.1017/jpa.2022.23.
  594. ^ Frederickson, J.A.; Schaefer, S.N.; Doucette-Frederickson, J.A. (2015). "A gigantic shark from the Lower Cretaceous Duck Creek Formation of Texas". PLOS ONE. 10 (6): e0127162. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1027162F. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0127162. PMC 4454486. PMID 26039066.
  595. ^ Kent, B.W. (1999). "Speculations on the Size and Morphology of the Extinct Lamnoid Shark, Parotodus benedeni (le Hon)" (PDF). The Mosasaur. 6: 11–15.
  596. ^ Ward, D. J.; Kent, B. W. (2015). A new giant species of thresher shark from the Miocene of the United States (Report). Natural History Museum. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.1723.0969.
  597. ^ Pimiento, Catalina; Cantalapiedra, Juan L.; Shimada, Kenshu; Field, Daniel J.; Smaers, Jeroen B. (March 2019). "Evolutionary pathways toward gigantism in sharks and rays" (PDF). Evolution. 73 (3): 588–599. doi:10.1111/evo.13680. PMID 30675721.
  598. ^ Stumpf, Sebastian; López-Romero, Faviel A.; Kindlimann, René; Lacombat, Frederic; Pohl, Burkhard; Kriwet, Jürgen (August 2021). "A unique hybodontiform skeleton provides novel insights into Mesozoic chondrichthyan life". Papers in Palaeontology. 7 (3): 1479–1505. Bibcode:2021PPal....7.1479S. doi:10.1002/spp2.1350.
  599. ^ Maisch, Michael W.; Matzke, Andreas T. (June 2016). "A new hybodontid shark (Chondrichthyes, Hybodontiformes) from the Lower Jurassic Posidonienschiefer Formation of Dotternhausen, SW Germany". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Abhandlungen. 280 (3): 241–257. doi:10.1127/njgpa/2016/0577.
  600. ^ Katz, B. (4 February 2020). "Jaw of 330-Million-Year-Old Shark Discovered in Kentucky Cave".
  601. ^ Villalobos-Segura, E.; Kriwet, J.; Vullo, R.; Stumpf, S.; Ward, D.J.; Underwood, C.J. (2021). "The skeletal remains of the euryhaline sclerorhynchoid †Onchopristis (Elasmobranchii) from the 'Mid'-Cretaceous and their palaeontological implications". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 193 (2): 746–771. doi:10.1093/zoolinnean/zlaa166.
  602. ^ a b "Buzzsaw-toothed leviathans cruised the ancient seas". eartharchives.org. Archived from the original on 22 August 2021.
  603. ^ a b Stanislav Drobyshevsky (2022). Палеонтология антрополога. Книга 1. Докембрий и палеозой (Paleontology of anthropologist. Volume 1. Precambrian and Paleozoic). Eksmo. ISBN 978-5-04-209523-8. Retrieved 31 August 2022.
  604. ^ Tapanila, L.; Pruitt, J.; Wilga, C.D.; Pradel, A. (2020). "Saws, Scissors, and Sharks: Late Paleozoic Experimentation with Symphyseal Dentition". The Anatomical Record. 303 (2): 363–376. doi:10.1002/ar.24046. PMID 30536888. S2CID 54478736.
  605. ^ a b Cavin, Lionel; Piuz, André; Ferrante, Christophe; Guinot, Guillaume (3 June 2021). "Giant Mesozoic coelacanths (Osteichthyes, Actinistia) reveal high body size disparity decoupled from taxic diversity". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 11812. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1111812C. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-90962-5. PMC 8175595. PMID 34083600.
  606. ^ Brito, Paulo M.; Martill, David M.; Eaves, Ian; Smith, Roy E.; Cooper, Samuel L.A. (June 2021). "A marine Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) coelacanth from North Africa". Cretaceous Research. 122: 104768. Bibcode:2021CrRes.12204768B. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2021.104768.
  607. ^ Shimada, Kenshu; Kirkland, James I. (2011). "A mysterious king-sized Mesozoic lungfish from North America". Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science. 114 (1/2): 135–141. doi:10.1660/062.114.0114. JSTOR 41309634. S2CID 84698238.
  608. ^ Jeffery, J.E. (2003). "Mandibles of rhizodontids: anatomy, function andevolution within the tetrapod stem-group". Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences. 93 (3): 255–276. doi:10.1017/S0263593300000432. S2CID 129517553.
  609. ^ Jeffery, Jonathan E. (1 September 2012). "Cranial morphology of the Carboniferous rhizodontid Screbinodus ornatus (Osteichthyes: Sarcopterygii)". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 10 (3): 475–519. Bibcode:2012JSPal..10..475J. doi:10.1080/14772019.2011.595961. S2CID 84810001.
  610. ^ Holland, Timothy (2010). "Upper Devonian osteichthyan remains from the Genoa River, Victoria, Australia". Memoirs of Museum Victoria. 67: 35–44. doi:10.24199/j.mmv.2010.67.04.
  611. ^ Hornung, Jahn J.; Sachs, Sven (22 January 2020). "First record of Gyrosteus mirabilis (Actinopterygii, Chondrosteidae) from the Toarcian (Lower Jurassic) of the Baltic region". PeerJ. 8: e8400. doi:10.7717/peerj.8400. PMC 6982408. PMID 32002331.
  612. ^ Nessov, L.A. (1997). Cretaceous nonmarine vertebrates of northern Eurasia. Saint Petersburg: University of Saint Petersburg Institute of Earth Crust, 218 pp. [in Russian].
  613. ^ Grande, Lance; Bemis, William E. (1991). "Osteology and Phylogenetic Relationships of Fossil and Recent Paddlefishes (Polyodontidae) with Comments on the Interrelationships of Acipenseriformes". Memoir (Society of Vertebrate Paleontology). 1: ii–121. doi:10.2307/3889328. JSTOR 3889328.
  614. ^ Liston, J., Newbrey, M., Challands, T., and Adams, C., 2013, "Growth, age and size of the Jurassic pachycormid Leedsichthys problematicus (Osteichthyes: Actinopterygii) in: Arratia, G., Schultze, H. and Wilson, M. (eds.) Mesozoic Fishes 5 – Global Diversity and Evolution. Verlag Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, München, Germany, pp. 145–175
  615. ^ Martill, D.M., 1988, "Leedsichthys problematicus, a giant filter-feeding teleost from the Jurassic of England and France", Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie Monatshefte 1988 (11): 670–680
  616. ^ [Ed.] "Catch the 100ft fish", The Mirror, London, England, 18 September 2003
  617. ^ "Major Fossil Discovery Underway in Morden" (PDF). Canadian Fossil Discovery Centre. 16 July 2010. Press release.
  618. ^ Everhart, Michael J. (11 September 2017). Oceans of Kansas: A Natural History of the Western Interior Sea. Indiana University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0-253-02715-3. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
  619. ^ Kriwet, Jürgen (August 2008). "The dentition of the enigmatic pycnodont fish, Athrodon wittei (Fricke, 1876) (Neopterygii, Pycnodontiformes; Late Jurassic; NW Germany)". Fossil Record. 11 (2): 61–66. Bibcode:2008FossR..11...61K. doi:10.1002/mmng.200800002.
  620. ^ Grandstaff, B. S; Smith, J. B.; Lamanna, M. C.; Lacovara, K. J.; Abdel-Ghani, M. S. (2012). "Bawitius, gen. nov., a giant polypterid (Osteichthyes, Actinopterygii) from the Upper Cretaceous Bahariya Formation of Egypt". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 32 (1): 17–26. Bibcode:2012JVPal..32...17G. doi:10.1080/02724634.2012.626823. S2CID 140547157.
  621. ^ Gottfried, Michael D.; Fordyce, R. Ewan; Rust, Seabourne (2006). "Megalampris keyesi, a Giant Moonfish (Teleostei, Lampridiformes) from the Late Oligocene of New Zealand". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 6 (3): 544–551. doi:10.1671/0272-4634(2006)26[544:MKAGMT]2.0.CO;2. S2CID 85849900.
  622. ^ a b Sankey, Julia; Biewer, Jacob; Basuga, Janis; Palacios, Francisco; Wagner, Hugh (2016). "The giant, spike-toothed salmon, Oncorhynchus rastrosus and the "Proto-Tuolumne River" (early Pliocene) of Central California". PaleoBios. 33: 1–16. doi:10.5070/P9331033123.
  623. ^ Stearley, R.F. and G.R. Smith. 2016. Salmonid fishes from Mio-Pliocene lake sediments in the Western Snake River Plain and the Great Basin. in W.L. Fink and N. Carpenter (eds.). Fishes of the Mio-Pliocene Western Snake River Plain and Vicinity. Misc. Pub. Museum Zoology, University of Michigan 204:1–45
  624. ^ Gregorova, Ruzena; Schultz, Ortwin; Harzhauser, Mathias; Kroh, Andreas; Ćorić, Stjepan (12 June 2009). "A giant early Miocene sunfish from the North Alpine Foreland Basin (Austria) and its implication for molid phylogeny". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 29 (2): 359–371. Bibcode:2009JVPal..29..359G. doi:10.1671/039.029.0201. S2CID 54774567.
  625. ^ Troyer, Emily M.; Betancur-R, Ricardo; Hughes, Lily C.; Westneat, Mark; Carnevale, Giorgio; White, William T.; Pogonoski, John J.; Tyler, James C.; Baldwin, Carole C.; Ortí, Guillermo; Brinkworth, Andrew; Clavel, Julien; Arcila, Dahiana (11 July 2022). "The impact of paleoclimatic changes on body size evolution in marine fishes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 119 (29): e2122486119. Bibcode:2022PNAS..11922486T. doi:10.1073/pnas.2122486119. PMC 9308125. PMID 35858316.
  626. ^ Viñola Lopez, Lazaro W.; Carr, Richard; Lorenzo, Logel (20 October 2020). "First occurrence of fossil Balistes (Tetradontiformes: Balistidae) from the Miocene of Cuba with the description of a new species and a revision of fossil Balistes". Historical Biology. 32 (9): 1290–1299. Bibcode:2020HBio...32.1290V. doi:10.1080/08912963.2019.1580278. S2CID 92003143.
  627. ^ Michaut, Marc (February 2012). Stratodontidae, Maastrichtien du Niger, partie 1 (Preprint).
  628. ^ Hess, Hans (18 January 2011). "Treatise Online, no. 16, Part T, Revised, Volume 1, Chapter 19: Paleoecology of pelagic crinoids". Treatise Online. doi:10.17161/to.v0i0.4086.
  629. ^ Blake, Daniel B. (1 June 2009). "Re-evaluation of the Devonian family Helianthasteridae Gregory, 1899 (Asteroidea: Echinodermata)". Paläontologische Zeitschrift. 83 (2): 293–308. Bibcode:2009PalZ...83..293B. doi:10.1007/s12542-009-0020-x. S2CID 131480746.
  630. ^ David K. Loydell, Robert F. Loveridge (23 April 2001). "The world's longest graptolite?". Geological Journal. 36 (1): 55–57. Bibcode:2001GeolJ..36...55L. doi:10.1002/gj.875. S2CID 129566263.
  631. ^ Fu, Dongjing; Tong, Guanghui; Dai, Tao; Liu, Wei; Yang, Yuning; Zhang, Yuan; Cui, Linhao; Li, Luoyang; Yun, Hao; Wu, Yu; Sun, Ao; Liu, Cong; Pei, Wenrui; Gaines, Robert R.; Zhang, Xingliang (22 March 2019). "The Qingjiang biota—A Burgess Shale–type fossil Lagerstätte from the early Cambrian of South China". Science. 363 (6433): 1338–1342. Bibcode:2019Sci...363.1338F. doi:10.1126/science.aau8800. PMID 30898931. S2CID 85448914.
  632. ^ "'Mindblowing' haul of fossils over 500m years old unearthed in China". The Guardian. 21 March 2019.
  633. ^ a b Vinther, Jakob; Porras, Luis; Young, Fletcher J.; Budd, Graham E.; Edgecombe, Gregory D. (November 2016). "The mouth apparatus of the Cambrian gilled lobopodian Pambdelurion whittingtoni". Palaeontology. 59 (6): 841–849. Bibcode:2016Palgy..59..841V. doi:10.1111/pala.12256.
  634. ^ Van Roy, Peter; Daley, Allison C.; Briggs, Derek E. G. (June 2015). "Anomalocaridid trunk limb homology revealed by a giant filter-feeder with paired flaps". Nature. 522 (7554): 77–80. Bibcode:2015Natur.522...77V. doi:10.1038/nature14256. PMID 25762145.
  635. ^ Lerosey-Aubril, Rudy; Pates, Stephen (14 September 2018). "New suspension-feeding radiodont suggests evolution of microplanktivory in Cambrian macronekton". Nature Communications. 9 (1): 3774. Bibcode:2018NatCo...9.3774L. doi:10.1038/s41467-018-06229-7. PMC 6138677. PMID 30218075.
  636. ^ Bergström, Jan; Stürmer, Wilhelm; Winter, Gerhard (1 June 1980). "Palaeoisopus, Palaeopantopus and Palaeothea, pycnogonid arthropods from the Lower Devonian Hunsrück Slate, West Germany". Paläontologische Zeitschrift. 54 (1–2): 7–54. Bibcode:1980PalZ...54....7B. doi:10.1007/BF02985882. S2CID 86746066.
  637. ^ Anderson, Lyall I.; Poschmann, Markus; Brauckmann, Carsten (November 1998). "On the Emsian (Lower Devonian) arthropods of the Rhenish Slate Mountains: 2. The synziphosurineWillwerathia". Paläontologische Zeitschrift. 72 (3–4): 325–336. Bibcode:1998PalZ...72..325A. doi:10.1007/BF02988363.
  638. ^ a b Lamsdell, James C. (January 2013). "Revised systematics of Palaeozoic 'horseshoe crabs' and the myth of monophyletic Xiphosura: Re-evaluating the Monophyly of Xiphosura". Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society. 167 (1): 1–27. doi:10.1111/j.1096-3642.2012.00874.x.
  639. ^ Edgecombe, Gregory D. (25 November 1998). "Early myriapodous arthropods from Australia: Maldybulakia from the Devonian of New South Wales". Records of the Australian Museum. 50 (3): 293–313. doi:10.3853/j.0067-1975.50.1998.1288.
  640. ^ Gaillard, Christian (1 December 2011). "A giant limulid trackway (Kouphichnium lithographicum) from the lithographic limestones of Cerin (Late Kimmeridgian, France): ethological and environmental implications". Swiss Journal of Geosciences. 104 (1): 57–72. Bibcode:2011SwJG..104...57G. doi:10.1007/s00015-010-0032-2. S2CID 140543244.
  641. ^ Lamsdell, James C.; Gunderson, Gerald O.; Meyer, Ronald C. (December 2019). "A common arthropod from the Late Ordovician Big Hill Lagerstätte (Michigan) reveals an unexpected ecological diversity within Chasmataspidida". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 19 (1): 8. Bibcode:2019BMCEE..19....8L. doi:10.1186/s12862-018-1329-4. PMC 6325806. PMID 30621579.
  642. ^ Braddy, Simon J; Poschmann, Markus; Tetlie, O. Erik (23 February 2008). "Giant claw reveals the largest ever arthropod". Biology Letters. 4 (1): 106–109. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2007.0491. PMC 2412931. PMID 18029297.
  643. ^ a b c Lamsdell, James C.; Braddy, Simon J. (2009). "Cope's Rule and Romer's theory: patterns of diversity and gigantism in eurypterids and Palaeozoic vertebrates". Biology Letters. 6 (2): 265–9. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2009.0700. PMC 2865068. PMID 19828493. Supplementary information. Archived from the original on 28 February 2018. Retrieved 5 September 2022.
  644. ^ a b Lamsdell, James C.; Briggs, Derek E. G.; Liu, Huaibao; Witzke, Brian J.; McKay, Robert M. (1 September 2015). "The oldest described eurypterid: a giant Middle Ordovician (Darriwilian) megalograptid from the Winneshiek Lagerstätte of Iowa". BMC Evolutionary Biology. 15 (1): 169. Bibcode:2015BMCEE..15..169L. doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0443-9. PMC 4556007. PMID 26324341.
  645. ^ Jeram, Andrew J. (1993). "Scorpions from the Viséan of East Kirkton, West Lothian, Scotland, with a revision of the infraorder Mesoscorpionina". Earth and Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 84 (3–4): 283–299. Bibcode:1993EESTR..84..283J. doi:10.1017/S0263593300006106.
  646. ^ Kjellesvig-Waering, Erik N. (1972). "Brontoscorpio anglicus: A Gigantic Lower Paleozoic Scorpion from Central England". Journal of Paleontology. 46 (1): 39–42. JSTOR 1302906.
  647. ^ Kjellesvig-Waering, E. N. (1986). "A restudy of the fossil Scorpionida of the world". Palaeontographica Americana. 55: 1–287.
  648. ^ Selden, P. A.; Shih, C.K.; Ren, D. (2011). "A golden orb-weaver spider (Araneae: Nephilidae: Nephila) from the Middle Jurassic of China". Biology Letters. 7 (5): 775–8. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.0228. PMC 3169061. PMID 21508021.
  649. ^ Selden, Paul A.; Da Costa Casado, Fabio; Vianna Mesquita, Marisa (July 2006). "Mygalomorph spiders (Araneae: Dipluridae) from the Lower Cretaceous Crato lagerstätte, Araripe Basin, north-east Brazil". Palaeontology. 49 (4): 817–826. Bibcode:2006Palgy..49..817S. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2006.00561.x. hdl:1808/8355.
  650. ^ David M. Martill; Günter Bechly; Robert F. Loveridge (2007). The Crato Fossil Beds of Brazil: Window into an Ancient World. Cambridge University Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-139-46776-6. Retrieved 22 August 2022.
  651. ^ Santana, William; Pinheiro, Allysson P.; Silva, Thiago Andrade; Lima, Daniel (3 January 2024). "Description of a new fossil Thelyphonida (Arachnida, Uropygi) and further record of Cratosolpuga wunderlichi Selden, in Selden and Shear, 1996 (Arachnida, Solifugae) from Crato Formation (Aptian/Albian), Araripe Basin, Brazil". PeerJ. 12: e16670. doi:10.7717/peerj.16670. PMC 10771091. PMID 38188171.
  652. ^ Jason A. Dunlop, David M. Martill. The first whipspider (Arachnida: Amblypygi) and three new whipscorpions (Arachnida: Thelyphonida) from the Lower Cretaceous Crato Formation of Brazil. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences, 92, 325–334, 2002.
  653. ^ Whalen, Niall; Selden, Paul (May 2021). "A new, giant ricinuleid (Arachnida, Ricinulei), from the Pennsylvanian of Illinois, and the identification of a new, ontogenetically stable, diagnostic character". Journal of Paleontology. 95 (3): 601–612. Bibcode:2021JPal...95..601W. doi:10.1017/jpa.2020.104.
  654. ^ Dunlop, Jason A.; Frahnert, Konrad; Mąkol, Joanna (23 October 2018). "A giant mite in Cretaceous Burmese amber". Fossil Record. 21 (2): 285–290. Bibcode:2018FossR..21..285D. doi:10.5194/fr-21-285-2018.
  655. ^ a b Rößler, Ronny & Dunlop, Jason A. (1997). "Redescription of the largest trigonotarbid arachnid – Kreischeria wiedei Geinitz 1882 from the Upper Carboniferous of Zwickau, Germany". Paläontologische Zeitschrift. 71 (3–4): 237–245. Bibcode:1997PalZ...71..237R. doi:10.1007/BF02988493. S2CID 129447249.
  656. ^ Zhang, Maoyin; Liu, Yu; Hou, Xianguang; Ortega-Hernández, Javier; Mai, Huijuan; Schmidt, Michel; Melzer, Roland R.; Guo, Jin (2022). "Ventral Morphology of the Non-Trilobite Artiopod Retifacies abnormalis Hou, Chen & Lu, 1989, from the Early Cambrian Chengjiang Biota, China". Biology. 11 (8): 1235. doi:10.3390/biology11081235. PMC 9405172. PMID 36009864.
  657. ^ a b Nicholas J. Minter, M. Gabriela Mángano & Jean-Bernard Caron (2011). "Skimming the surface with Burgess Shale arthropod locomotion". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 279 (1733): 1613–1620. doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.1986. PMC 3282348. PMID 22072605.
  658. ^ Gutiérrez-Marco, Juan C.; Sá, Artur A.; Garcia-Bellido, Diego C.; Rabano, Isabel; Valério, Manuel (2009). "Giant Trilobites and Trilobite Clusters from the Ordovician of Portugal". Geology. 37 (5): 443–446. Bibcode:2009Geo....37..443G. doi:10.1130/G25513A.1.
  659. ^ George r. Mcghee, Jr. (12 November 2013). When the Invasion of Land Failed: The Legacy of the Devonian Extinctions. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-16057-5.
  660. ^ "The Excitement of Discovery". Virtual Museum of Canada. Archived from the original on 4 February 2012. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
  661. ^ "Largest-ever millipede fossil found on Northumberland beach". BBC News. 21 December 2021. Retrieved 21 December 2021.
  662. ^ Neil Davies; et al. (21 December 2021). "The largest arthropod in Earth history: insights from newly discovered Arthropleura remains (Serpukhovian Stainmore Formation, Northumberland, England)". Journal of the Geological Society. 179 (3). doi:10.1144/jgs2021-115. S2CID 245401499.
  663. ^ Dzik, Jerzy (2008). "Gill structure and relationships of the Triassic cycloid crustaceans" (PDF). Journal of Morphology. 269 (12): 1501–1519. doi:10.1002/jmor.10663. PMID 18690662. S2CID 17617567.
  664. ^ Emerson, M.J.; Schram, F.R. (1991). "Remipedia, part 2: paleontology". Proceedings of the San Diego Society of Natural History. 7: 1–52.
  665. ^ Remipedia: Species – robustus, Godzillius. Crustacea.net (2 October 2002)
  666. ^ Schaal, Stephan (2006). "Messel". Encyclopedia of Life Sciences. doi:10.1038/npg.els.0004143. ISBN 978-0-470-01617-6.
  667. ^ Engel, M. S. (2006). "The giant honey bee, Apis lithohermaea Engel, from the Miocene of Japan and the geological history of Apis (Hymenoptera: Apidae)". Honeybee Science.
  668. ^ Archibald, S.B.; Rasnitsyn, A.P. (2015). "New early Eocene Siricomorpha (Hymenoptera: Symphyta: Pamphiliidae, Siricidae, Cephidae) from the Okanagan Highlands, western North America". The Canadian Entomologist. 148 (2): 209–228. doi:10.4039/tce.2015.55. S2CID 85743832.
  669. ^ Gao, Taiping; Shih, Chungkun; Rasnitsyn, Alexandr P.; Ren, Dong (3 May 2013). "Hoplitolyda duolunica gen. et sp. nov. (Insecta, Hymenoptera, Praesiricidae), the Hitherto Largest Sawfly from the Mesozoic of China". PLOS ONE. 8 (5): e62420. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...862420G. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0062420. PMC 3643952. PMID 23671596.
  670. ^ Zhang, Yanjie; Shih, Chungkun; Rasnitsyn, Alexandr; Ren, Dong; Gao, Taiping (2020). "A new flea from the Early Cretaceous of China". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 65. doi:10.4202/app.00680.2019. S2CID 213622677.
  671. ^ a b "Labidura". St Helena and Ascension Island Natural History. Archived from the original on 17 July 2011. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  672. ^ Walker, Matt (17 November 2014). "World's largest earwig is declared extinct". BBC Earth. Archived from the original on 1 May 2017. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  673. ^ F. E. Zeuner. 1962. A subfossil giant dermapteron from St. Helena. Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London 138:651–653
  674. ^ "Fossil mit der ID: 1780 – Chresmoda obscura GERMAR, 1839 – Die Fossilien von Solnhofen". solnhofen-fossilienatlas.de. Archived from the original on 20 August 2022. Retrieved 13 October 2022.
  675. ^ Chalumeau, F.; Brochier, B. (2001). "Une forme fossile nouvelle de Chiasognathinae: Protognathinus spielbergi(Coleoptera, Lucanidae)" (PDF). Lambillionea. 101: 593–595. Archived (PDF) from the original on 20 September 2022.
  676. ^ Ratcliffe, Brett C.; Smith, Dena M.; Erwin, Diane (March 2005). "Oryctoantiquus borealis, New Genus and Species from the Eocene of Oregon, U.S.A., the World's Oldest Fossil Dynastine and Largest Fossil Scarabaeid (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae: Dynastinae)". The Coleopterists Bulletin. 59 (1): 127–135. doi:10.1649/0010-065X(2005)059[0127:OBNGAS]2.0.CO;2.
  677. ^ Park, Tae-Yoon S.; Kim, Do-Yoon; Nam, Gi-Soo; Lee, Mirinae (6 May 2022). "A new titanopteran Magnatitan jongheoni n. gen. n. sp. from southwestern Korean Peninsula". Journal of Paleontology. 96 (5): 1111–1118. Bibcode:2022JPal...96.1111P. doi:10.1017/jpa.2022.30. S2CID 248592776.
  678. ^ McKeown, Keith C. (15 May 1937). "New fossil insect wings (Protohemiptera, family Mesotitanidae)". Records of the Australian Museum. 20 (1): 31–37. doi:10.3853/j.0067-1975.20.1937.565.
  679. ^ Bechly, G.; Makarkin, V. N. (2016). "A new gigantic lacewing species (Insecta: Neuroptera) from the Lower Cretaceous of Brazil confirms the occurrence of Kalligrammatidae in the Americas". Cretaceous Research. 58: 135–140. Bibcode:2016CrRes..58..135B. doi:10.1016/j.cretres.2015.10.014.
  680. ^ Sellards, E. H. (April 1903). "Some new structural characters of Paleozoic cockroaches". American Journal of Science. s4-15 (88): 307–315. Bibcode:1903AmJS...15..307S. doi:10.2475/ajs.s4-15.88.307.
  681. ^ Easterday, Cary Ray (2004). Stratigraphy and paleontology of Cemetery Hill (Desmoinesian-Missourian: Upper Carboniferous), Columbiana County, eastern Ohio (Thesis). The Ohio State University. Archived from the original on 20 September 2022. Retrieved 20 August 2022.
  682. ^ Schneider, Joerg; Scholze, Frank; Germann, Sebastian; Lucas, Spencer (16 April 2021). "THE LATE PENNSYLVANIAN NEARSHORE INSECT FAUNA OF THE KINNEY BRICK QUARRY INVERTEBRATE AND VERTEBRATE FOSSIL LAGERSTÄTTE, NEW MEXICO". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 84.
  683. ^ Genus Ptiloteuthis Gabb: Notulae Naturae of The Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila., No. 9. Academy of Natural Sciences. ISBN 978-1-60483-009-5.
  684. ^ Engel, M.S.; Gross, M. (2008). "A giant termite from the Late Miocene of Styria, Austria (Isoptera)". Naturwissenschaften. 96 (2): 289–295. Bibcode:2009NW.....96..289E. doi:10.1007/s00114-008-0480-y. PMID 19052720. S2CID 21795900.
  685. ^ Gand, G.; Nel, A. N.; Fleck, G.; Garrouste, R. (1 January 2008). "The Odonatoptera of the Late Permian Lodève Basin (Insecta)". Journal of Iberian Geology (in Spanish). 34 (1): 115–122.
  686. ^ Zhang, HaiChun; Zheng, DaRan; Wang, Bo; Fang, Yan; Jarzembowski, Edmund A. (1 May 2013). "The largest known odonate in China: Hsiufua chaoi Zhang et Wang, gen. et sp. nov. from the middle jurassic of inner mongolia". Chinese Science Bulletin. 58 (13): 1579–1584. Bibcode:2013ChSBu..58.1579Z. doi:10.1007/s11434-012-5567-3. S2CID 95712438.
  687. ^ Deregnaucourt, Isabelle; Wappler, Torsten; Anderson, John; Bethoux, Olivier (2017). "A new triadotypid insect from the Late Triassic of South Africa". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 62. doi:10.4202/app.00345.2017. S2CID 115149987.
  688. ^ Sinitshenkova, Nina (2012). "The biggest fossil mayfly (Insecta: Ephemerida = Ephemeroptera) from the Upper Permian locality of Isady, Northern European Russia". Far Eastern Entomologist.
  689. ^ Huang, Jiandong; Ren, Dong; Sinitshenkova, Nina D.; Shih, Chungkun (2 November 2007). "New genus and species of Hexagenitidae (Insecta: Ephemeroptera) from Yixian Formation, China". Zootaxa. 1629 (1): 39–50. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.1629.1.3.
  690. ^ Kukalová-Peck, Jarmila (April 1985). "Ephemeroid wing venation based upon new gigantic Carboniferous mayflies and basic morphology, phylogeny, and metamorphosis of pterygote insects (Insecta, Ephemerida)". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 63 (4): 933–955. doi:10.1139/z85-139.
  691. ^ Sroka, Pavel; Staniczek, Arnold H.; Bechly, Günter (2 November 2015). "Revision of the giant pterygote insect Bojophlebia prokopi Kukalová-Peck, 1985 (Hydropalaeoptera: Bojophlebiidae) from the Carboniferous of the Czech Republic, with the first cladistic analysis of fossil palaeopterous insects". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 13 (11): 963–982. Bibcode:2015JSPal..13..963S. doi:10.1080/14772019.2014.987958. S2CID 84037275.
  692. ^ Kukalová-Peck, Jarmila; Richardson, Eugene S. (1983). "New Homoiopteridae (Insecta: Paleodictyoptera) with wing articulation from Upper Carboniferous strata of Mazon Creek, Illinois". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 61 (7): 1670–1687. doi:10.1139/z83-218.
  693. ^ Brauckmann, Carsten; HERD, KARL (2007). "A subcircular insect wing from the Late Carboniferous of Osnabrück, Germany". Clausthaler Geowissenschaften. 6: 79–85.
  694. ^ Montagna, Matteo; Haug, Joachim T.; Strada, Laura; Haug, Carolin; Felber, Markus; Tintori, Andrea (7 April 2017). "Central nervous system and muscular bundles preserved in a 240 million year old giant bristletail (Archaeognatha: Machilidae)". Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 46016. Bibcode:2017NatSR...746016M. doi:10.1038/srep46016. PMC 5384076. PMID 28387236.
  695. ^ Hoell, H.V.; Doyen, J.T. & Purcell, A.H. (1998). Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 321. ISBN 0-19-510033-6.
  696. ^ Shear, William A.; Kukalová-Peck, Jarmila (September 1990). "The ecology of Paleozoic terrestrial arthropods: the fossil evidence". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 68 (9): 1807–1834. doi:10.1139/z90-262.
  697. ^ Stockar, Rudolf. "The first Mesozoic record of the extinct apterygote insect genus Dasyleptus (Insecta: Archaeognatha: Monura: Dasyleptidae) from the Triassic of Monte San Giorgio (Switzerland)". Paleodiversity. 4.
  698. ^ Staniczek, Arnold H.; Sroka, Pavel; Bechly, GüNter (October 2014). "Neither silverfish nor fowl: the enigmatic C arboniferous Carbotriplura kukalovae K luge, 1996 (Insecta: C arbotriplurida) is the putative fossil sister group of winged insects (Insecta: P terygota)". Systematic Entomology. 39 (4): 619–632. Bibcode:2014SysEn..39..619S. doi:10.1111/syen.12076.
  699. ^ Park, Tae-Yoon S.; Nielsen, Morten Lunde; Parry, Luke A.; Sørensen, Martin Vinther; Lee, Mirinae; Kihm, Ji-Hoon; Ahn, Inhye; Park, Changkun; de Vivo, Giacinto; Smith, M. Paul; Harper, David A. T.; Nielsen, Arne T.; Vinther, Jakob (2024). "A giant stem-group chaetognath". Science Advances. 10 (1): eadi6678. Bibcode:2024SciA...10I6678P. doi:10.1126/sciadv.adi6678. PMC 10796117. PMID 38170772.
  700. ^ "'Giant' predator worms more than half a billion years old discovered in North Greenland". University of Bristol. 3 January 2024.
  701. ^ a b Eriksson, Mats E.; Parry, Luke A.; Rudkin, David M. (February 2017). "Earth's oldest "Bobbit worm" – gigantism in a Devonian eunicidan polychaete". Scientific Reports. 7 (2): 239–260. Bibcode:2017NatSR...743061E. doi:10.1038/srep43061. PMC 5318920. PMID 28220886.
  702. ^ Zuerich, ETH-Bibliothek. "Giant gastropods of the genus Campanile from the Caribbean Eocene". E-Periodica (in German). Archived from the original on 15 June 2022.
  703. ^ Cerithium giganteum ou Campanile giganteum. Archived copy from 28 July 2016.
  704. ^ Dominici, Stefano; Fornasiero, Mariagabriella; Giusberti, Luca (14 December 2020). "The largest known cowrie and the iterative evolution of giant cypraeid gastropods". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 21893. Bibcode:2020NatSR..1021893D. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-78940-9. PMC 7736312. PMID 33318588.
  705. ^ Wesselingh, Frank; Anderson, L. C.; Kadolsky, D. (January 2006). "Molluscs from the Miocene Pebas Formation of Peruvian and Colombian Amazonia". Scripta Geologica. 133: 19–290.
  706. ^ Journal of Paleontology, January 2007, Vol. 81, No. 1 (January 2007), pp. 64–81
  707. ^ "Verdens største musling". Archived from the original on 18 August 2022.
  708. ^ Asato, Kaito; Kase, Tomoki; Ono, Teruo; Sashida, Katsuo; Agematsu, Sachiko (October 2017). "Morphology, Systematics and Paleoecology of Shikamaia , Aberrant Permian Bivalves (Alatoconchidae: Ambonychioidea) from Japan". Paleontological Research. 21 (4): 358–379. doi:10.2517/2017PR002.
  709. ^ "化石館だより 5月号 No.25 金生山の大きな貝化石" (PDF). 金生山化石館.
  710. ^ CHINZEI, K. (1986). "Shell structure, growth, and functional morphology of an elongate Cretaceous oyster". Palaeontology. 29 (1): 139–154.
  711. ^ a b c Vermeij, Geerat J. (15 January 2016). "Gigantism and Its Implications for the History of Life". PLOS ONE. 11 (1): e0146092. Bibcode:2016PLoSO..1146092V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0146092. PMC 4714876. PMID 26771527.
  712. ^ Asato, Kaito; Kase, Tomoki (July 2021). "Gigantic scaphopods (Mollusca) from the Permian Akasaka Limestone, central Japan". Journal of Paleontology. 95 (4): 748–762. Bibcode:2021JPal...95..748A. doi:10.1017/jpa.2021.3.
  713. ^ Klug, Christian; De Baets, Kenneth; Kröger, Björn; Bell, Mark A.; Korn, Dieter; Payne, Jonathan L. (April 2015). "Normal giants? Temporal and latitudinal shifts of Palaeozoic marine invertebrate gigantism and global change". Lethaia. 48 (2): 267–288. Bibcode:2015Letha..48..267K. doi:10.1111/let.12104.
  714. ^ Payne, Jonathan L.; Boyer, Alison G.; Brown, James H.; Finnegan, Seth; Kowalewski, Michał; Krause, Richard A.; Lyons, S. Kathleen; McClain, Craig R.; McShea, Daniel W.; Novack-Gottshall, Philip M.; Smith, Felisa A.; Stempien, Jennifer A.; Wang, Steve C. (6 January 2009). "Two-phase increase in the maximum size of life over 3.5 billion years reflects biological innovation and environmental opportunity". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 106 (1): 24–27. Bibcode:2009PNAS..106...24P. doi:10.1073/pnas.0806314106. PMC 2607246. PMID 19106296.
  715. ^ Teichert, C. & B. Kummel 1960. Size of endoceroid cephalopods. Breviora Museum of Comparative Zoology 128: 1–7.
  716. ^ Ifrim, Christina; Stinnesbeck, Wolfgang; González, Arturo H. González; Schorndorf, Nils; Gale, Andrew S. (10 November 2021). "Ontogeny, evolution and palaeogeographic distribution of the world's largest ammonite Parapuzosia (P.) seppenradensis (Landois, 1895)". PLOS ONE. 16 (11): e0258510. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1658510I. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0258510. PMC 8580234. PMID 34758037.
  717. ^ Iba, Yasuhiro; Sano, Shin-Ichi; Goto, Michiharu (January 2015). "Large Belemnites were Already Common in the Early Jurassic—New Evidence from Central Japan". Paleontological Research. 19 (1): 21–25. doi:10.2517/2014PR025. S2CID 55001872.
  718. ^ Fuchs, Dirk; Iba, Yasuhiro; Heyng, Alexander; Iijima, Masaya; Klug, Christian; Larson, Neal L.; Schweigert, Günter (February 2020). "The Muensterelloidea: phylogeny and character evolution of Mesozoic stem octopods". Papers in Palaeontology. 6 (1): 31–92. Bibcode:2020PPal....6...31F. doi:10.1002/spp2.1254.
  719. ^ Tanabe, Kazushige; Hikida, Yoshinori; Iba, Yasuhiro (January 2006). "Two Coleoid Jaws from the Upper Cretaceous of Hokkaido, Japan". Journal of Paleontology. 80 (1): 138–145. doi:10.1666/0022-3360(2006)080[0138:TCJFTU]2.0.CO;2.
  720. ^ Tanabe, Kazushige; Misaki, Akihiro; Ubukata, Takao (2014). "Late Cretaceous record of large soft-bodied coleoids based on lower jaw remains from Hokkaido, Japan". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. doi:10.4202/app.00052.2013.
  721. ^ Mychko, Eduard V.; Feldmann, Rodney M.; Schweitzer, Carrie E.; Alekseev, Alexander S. (25 October 2019). "New genus of Cyclida (Crustacea) from Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian, Viséan) of Russia and England and new species from Viséan of Russia". Neues Jahrbuch für Geologie und Paläontologie - Abhandlungen. 294 (1): 81–90. doi:10.1127/njgpa/2019/0847.
  722. ^ George R. McGhee, Jr. (2019). Convergent Evolution on Earth. Lessons for the Search for Extraterrestrial Life. MIT Press. p. 47. ISBN 9780262354189. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
  723. ^ Vojtěch Turek; J. Marek; Josef Beneš (1989). Fossils of the World. A Comprehensive Practical Guide to Collecting and Studying Fossils. Arch Cape Press. p. 146. ISBN 9780517679043. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
  724. ^ Helen Marguerite Muir-Wood, Gustav Arthur Cooper (1960). Morphology, Classification and Life Habits of the Productoidea (Brachiopoda). Geological Society of America. p. 334. ISBN 9780813710815. Retrieved 23 August 2022.
  725. ^ Peel, John S.; Yochelson, Ellis L. (July 1984). "Permian Toxeumorphorida from Greenland: an appraisal of the molluscan class Xenoconchia". Lethaia. 17 (3): 211–221. Bibcode:1984Letha..17..211P. doi:10.1111/j.1502-3931.1984.tb01619.x.
  726. ^ Mayoral, Eduardo; Liñán, Eladio; Vintaned, José Antonio Gámez; Muñiz, Fernando; Gozalo, Rodolfo (3 March 2021). "Stranded jellyfish in the lowermost Cambrian (Corduban) of Spain". Spanish Journal of Palaeontology. 19 (2): 191–198. doi:10.7203/sjp.19.2.20531. S2CID 126508499.
  727. ^ Clarke, Tom (30 January 2002). "Jellies roll back time". Nature. doi:10.1038/news020128-5.
  728. ^ Laflamme, M.; Narbonne, G. M.; Greentree, C.; Anderson, M. M. (January 2007). "Morphology and taphonomy of an Ediacaran frond: Charnia from the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 286 (1): 237–257. Bibcode:2007GSLSP.286..237L. doi:10.1144/sp286.17.
  729. ^ Dunn, Frances S.; Wilby, Philip R.; Kenchington, Charlotte G.; Grazhdankin, Dmitriy V.; Donoghue, Philip C. J.; Liu, Alexander G. (2019). "Anatomy of the Ediacaran rangeomorph Charnia masoni". Papers in Palaeontology. 5 (1): 157–176. Bibcode:2019PPal....5..157D. doi:10.1002/spp2.1234. PMC 6472560. PMID 31007942.
  730. ^ Jenkins, R.J.F. (1992). "Functional and ecological aspects of Ediacarian assemblages". In Lipps, J.; Signor, P.W. (eds.). Origin and early evolution of the Metazoa. New York, NY: Springer. pp. 131–176. ISBN 978-0-306-44067-0. OCLC 231467647.
  731. ^ Fedonkin M. A.; Gehling J. G.; Grey K.; Narbonne G. M.; Vickers-Rich P. (2007). The Rise of Animals. Evolution and Diversification of the Kingdom Animalia. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 326. ISBN 978-0-8018-8679-9.
  732. ^ Rigby, J. Keith; Senowbari-Daryan, Baba (1996). "Gigantospongia, New Genus, the Largest Known Permian Sponge, Capitan Limestone, Guadalupe Mountains, New Mexico". Journal of Paleontology. 70 (3): 347–355. Bibcode:1996JPal...70..347R. doi:10.1017/S0022336000038294. JSTOR 1306431. S2CID 130222477.

Sources

edit