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List of slave traders of the United States

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This is a list of slave traders of the United States, people whose occupation or business was the slave trade in the United States, i.e. the buying and selling of human chattel as commodities, primarily African-American people in the Southern United States, from the United States Declaration of Independence in 1776 until the defeat of the Confederate States of America in 1865.

Mary A. Livermore was a private tutor at a Virginia plantation around 1840; she commissioned this illustration for her memoir. The accompanying text reads: "Do all slave-traders look alike?" inquired Mary. "All that I've ever seen, do. They're all long and gawky, an' have no hair on top o' their heads; an' they all squint or are cross-eyed; an' they're all bow-legged, or limp; an' they all spit in the fire, an' they've all had the small-pox, an' they all look jess like this fellar." We all laughed at Dick's graphic description. "Pray, how many slave-traders have you seen, in the course of your not very long life?" I asked. "There's been two here afore, an' there was one down to The Oaks, when we were there. Jim an' me talked with 'im. An' once when me an' Pa went to Boydon, I saw half a dozen of 'em, an' talked with 'em; they're mighty mean ornary men, slave traders are like this fellar, an' wear jess such baggy, butte' nut breeches, that don't fit 'em. I can tell if this fellar's a slave-trader, quick as wink, when I hear 'im talk."
When the Union Army entered Savannah, Georgia during the American Civil War, they occupied what is now called the John Montmollin Building; it had a large sign that read "A. Bryan's Negro Mart" and was described as having "handcuffs, whips, and staples for tying, etc. Bills of sale of slaves by hundreds, and letters, all giving faithful description of the hellish business."[1] The building became one of two schools for children of freedmen that were opened January 10, 1865. The schools had 500 students, and were operated by the Savannah Educational Association, which was "supported entirely by the freedmen, [and] collected and expended $900 for educational purposes in its first year of operation."[2]

The Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves was passed in 1808 under the so-called Star-Spangled Banner flag, when there were 15 states in the Union, closing the transatlantic slave trade and setting the stage for the interstate slave trade in the U.S. Over 50 years later, in 1865, the last American slave sale was made somewhere in the rebel Confederacy.[3] In the intervening years, the politics surrounding the addition of 20 new states to the Union had been almost overwhelmingly dominated by whether or not those states would have legal slavery.[4]

Slavery was widespread, so slave trading was widespread, and "When a planter died, failed in business, divided his estate, needed ready money to satisfy a mortgage or pay a gambling debt, or desired to get rid of an unruly Negro, traders struck a profitable bargain."[5] A slave trader might have described himself as a broker, auctioneer, general agent, or commission merchant,[6] and often sold real estate, personal property, and livestock in addition to enslaved people.[7] Many large trading firms also had field agents, whose job it was to go to more remote towns and rural areas, buying up enslaved people for resale elsewhere.[3] Field agents stood lower in the hierarchy, and are generally poorly studied, in part due to lack of records, but field agents for Austin Woolfolk, for example, "served only a year or two at best and usually on a part-time basis. No fortunes were to be made as local agents."[8] On the other end of the financial spectrum from the agents were the investors—usually wealthy planters like David Burford,[9] John Springs III,[10] and Chief Justice John Marshall[11]—who fronted cash to slave speculators. They did not escort coffles or run auctions themselves, but they did parlay their enslaving expertise into profits. Also, especially in the first quarter of the 19th century, cotton factors, banks, and shipping companies did a great deal of slave trading business as part of what might be called the "vertical integration" of cotton and sugar industries.

Countless slaves were also sold at courthouse auctions by county sheriffs and U.S. marshals to satisfy court judgments, settle estates, and to "cover jail fees"; individuals involved in those sales are not the primary focus of this list. People who dealt in enslaved indigenous persons, such as was the case with slavery in California, would be included. Slave smuggling took advantage of international and tribal boundaries to traffic slaves into the United States from Spanish North American and Caribbean colonies, and across the lands of the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Muskogee, Seminole, et al., but American-born or naturalized smugglers, Indigenous slave traders, and any American buyers of smuggled slaves would be included.

Note: Research by Michael Tadman has found that "'core' sources provide only a basic skeleton of a much more substantial trade" in enslaved people throughout the South, with particular deficits in records of rural slave trading, already wealthy people who speculated to grow their wealth further, and in all private sales that occurred outside auction houses and negro marts.[10] This list represents a fraction of the "many hundreds of participants in a cruel and omnipresent" American market.[12]

"Slave Trader, Sold to Tennessee" depicting a coffle from Virginia in 1850 (Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Folk Art Museum)
Poindexter & Little, like many interstate slave-trading firms, had a buy-side in the upper south and a sell-side in the lower south[13] (Southern Confederacy, January 12, 1862, page 1, via Digital Library of Georgia)
Slave trading was legal in District of Columbia until 1850 and in the 15 so-called slave states (listed in order of admission to the Union): Delaware, Georgia, Maryland, South Carolina, Virginia, North Carolina, Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Missouri, Arkansas, Florida, and Texas (Reynolds's 1856 Political Map of the United States, depicting Missouri Compromise line, et al., Library of Congress Geography and Map Division)
Lyrics to a "singularly wild and plaintive air" about the interstate slave trade, recorded in "Letter XI. The Interior of South Carolina. A Corn-Shucking. Barnwell District, South Carolina, March 29, 1843"[14] in William Cullen Bryant's Letters from a Traveler, reprinted in The Ottawa Free Trader, Ottawa, Illinois, November 8, 1856[15]

List is organized by surname of trader, or name of firm, where principals have not been further identified.

Note: Charleston and Charles Town, Virginia are distinct places that later became Charleston, West Virginia, and Charles Town, West Virginia, respectively, and neither is to be confused with Charleston, South Carolina.

We must have a market for human flesh, or we are ruined.

— Frederick Douglass, on the predominant message from the Southern states to the U.S. government before the American Civil War, The Frederick Douglass Papers, vol. II, p. 405

A

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B

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C

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"A Sailor's Notion" The Liberator, March 24, 1837

D–F

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Antebellum city directories from slave states can be valuable primary sources on the trade; slave dealers listed in the 1855 directory of Memphis, Tennessee, included Bolton & Dickens, Forrest & Maples operating at 87 Adams, Neville & Cunningham, and Byrd Hill
 
Slave depots, including ones owned by Mason Harwell and Thomas Powell, listed in the 1859 Montgomery, Alabama city directory
 
Slave dealers listed in the 1861 directory of New Orleans, Louisiana, including C. F. Hatcher, Walter L. Campbell, R. H. Elam, Poindexter & Little, C. M. Rutherford, and J. M. Wilson
 
Slave dealers listed in the 1861 Louisville, Kentucky, city directory, including Matthew Garrison and Tarleton and Jordan Arterburn
 
In 1860 the city of Macon, Georgia had a population of 8,000 and supported three slave depots (Digital Library of Georgia)

G

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This 1862 etching of the Louisville wharf shows the view slaves might have had of the city before beginning the steamboat journey to the slave markets of the Deep South
 
Bird's eye view of the city of Memphis, Tennessee 1870; the city's slave pens had mostly been clustered on Adams

H

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"Gen. Jackson, a Negro Trader" The Ariel, Natchez, September 8, 1828

I–J

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"United States Slave Trade 1830" from Benjamin Lundy's Genius of Universal Emancipation depicted the rise of the coastwise slave trade between the Chesapeake Bay and the Mississippi watershed

K–L

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Lithographic illustration of chapter 30 from Uncle Tom's Cabin: "The Slave Warehouse"

M, Mc

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Frederic Bancroft noted that in many towns "the same man dealt in horses, mules and slaves."[300] ("Yazoo City Livery Stable: Horses, Mules, Negroes, &c, &c. bought and sold on commission." The Yazoo Democrat, March 18, 1846)
 
C. R. Bricken sold slave insurance, and listed a number of notable slave traders (including Seth Woodroof, Robert Lumpkin, Silas Omohundro, Hector Davis, Solomon Davis, and R. H. Dickinson) as references to whom "losses had been paid" (Richmond Enquirer, November 6, 1855)
  • Miller and Sutler[335]
  • Louis Miller & Co., Natchez, Miss.[336]
  • James S. Moffett, Troy, Tenn.[167]
  • Soloman Moffitt, Port Gibson, Miss.[337]
  • John S. Montmollin, Savannah[95]
  • Benjamin Mordecai[30]
  • Henry E. Moore, Plaquemine, Louisiana[338]
  • James Moore, Virginia and Alabama[339]
  • Peter Moore, Virginia[340]
  • William Moore, Carolinas[341]
  • Moore & Dawson, Richmond[3]
  • James T. Morris, Wilmington, N.C.[342]
  • Arthur Mosely, Virginia and Mississippi[49]
  • J. F. Moses, Lumpkin, Ga.[343]
  • Mullinnac[344]
  • Myers & Thomas, Columbus, Ga.[345]

N–P

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Traders including Shadrack F. Slatter, Walter L. Campbell, Joseph Bruin, and J. M. Wilson all used this site at Esplanade and Chartres (previously Moreau) in New Orleans at various times[104]

R

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In 1831, the first title-band vignette for The Liberator depicted a slave auction under a horse market sign, a whipping post set up in front of the U.S. Capitol, and an Indian treaty discarded in the mud and forgotten[387]

S

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T–V

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"Slave Transfer Agencies" listed in an 1854 Southern business directory, including Thomas Foster in New Orleans, a C. M. Rutherford partnership, and G. M. Noel in Memphis
 
Eyre Crowe, "Slave sale, Charleston, S.C.," published in The Illustrated London News, Nov. 29, 1856: The flag tied to a post beside the steps reads "Auction This Day by Alonzo J. White". The other flag was rendered in red in a later oil painting of the same image. A red flag indicated to buyers that a slave sale was imminent. In 1856, Alonzo J. White, along with fellow slave traders Louis D. DeSaussure and Ziba B. Oakes, opposed a new South Carolina law requiring that slave sales take place indoors rather than on the streets. Their argument was that the law was "an impolitic admission that would give 'strength to the opponents of slavery' and 'create among some portions of the community a doubt as to the moral right of slavery itself.'"[432]
 
Boat landings at Vicksburg and Memphis photographed c. 1913, perhaps looking not so different from how they looked in their days as hubs of the interstate slave trade
 
"Thomson Negro Trader" had mail waiting for him in Little Rock, Arkansas, in November 1859

W–Y

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  • Wadkins, Virginia and Georgia[451]
  • Charles Waley, Potomac River and Natchez[227]
  • Mat Warner, Virginia and Georgia[452]
  • Benjamin W. Walker, Jackson, Miss.[251]
  • Samuel Wakefield, Natchez[25]
  • A. Wallace, Memphis[453]
  • J. D. Ware, Memphis[110]
  • Morton Waring, Charleston[263]
  • William Watkins, Atlanta, Ga.[397]
  • William T. Watkins[30]
  • J. Watson, Louisville, Ky.[145]
  • Richard Watson, Louisville, Ky. and New Orleans[454]
  • Webb, Merrill & Co., Nashville [239]
  • A. Weisemann, New Orleans[29]
  • Joseph A. Weatherly[10]
  • Thomas C. Weatherly[10]
  • Weatherly, Breden & Bagget, Yazoo City, Miss.[455]
  • Weatherby, Augusta, Ga.[456]
  • Wetherby, Pigsah, Miss.[457]
  • James Whidby[458]
  • Alonzo J. White, Charleston
  • James White, New Orleans[459]
  • John White[460]
  • John R. White, St. Louis and New Orleans[461]
  • Maunsel White & Co., New Orleans[409]
  • Joseph A. Whitaker, Rosehill, N.C.[5]
  • Whitaker & Turner, Atlanta, Ga.[117]
  • Whitfield, North Carolina[443]
  • Moses J. Wicks, Aberdeen, Miss.[17]
  • Wilbur & Son, Charleston[398]
  • James P. Wilkinson[30]
  • David Williams and "Docr. flowers" [462]
  • Lewis E. Williams, Campbell Co., Va.[407]
  • Williams & Glover, Nashville[463]
  • Thomas Taylor Williamson, South Carolina and Louisiana[464]
  • James B. Williamson[30]
  • William Williamson[30]
  • J. M. Wilson, Baltimore and New Orleans[29][465]
  • William Winbush, Virginia[20]
  • Winfield, Mississippi[285]
  • Winston & Dixon, Georgia[466]
  • David Wise, New Orleans[189][467]
  • William Witherspoon, Memphis[71][151]
  • Joseph Woods[10]
  • Seth Woodroof, Lynchburg, Va.[226][407][468]
  • John Woolfolk, Natchez, Miss.[469][30]
  • Joseph B. Woolfolk, Eastern Shore, Maryland, and Natchez[470][471]
  • Samuel Martin Woolfolk, Baltimore, New Orleans, and Natchez[472][471]
  • Woolfolk[473]
  • Woolfolks, Sanders & Overley[5] (Richard Woolfolk, Robert Sanders, and Thomas W. Overley)[474]
  • George Wylly, Savannah[332]
  • Mr. Wythe[475]
  • Absolom Yancey[30]
  • Charles Yancey and Jackson Yancey, Norfolk, Va. and Oxford, N.C.[476]
  • Mr. Yeatman, Virginia[477]
  • Charles Young, New Orleans[478]
  • J. Winbush Young, Virginia[479]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Charles Town, Virginia became Charles Town, West Virginia in 1863.

References

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  1. ^ CAMP (1865). The Camp of Freedom. A Plea for the Coloured Freedman. Reprinted from the "Eclectic" for April, 1865. George Watson. p. 7.
  2. ^ Blassingame, John W. (1973). "Before the Ghetto: The Making of the Black Community in Savannah, Georgia, 1865-1880". Journal of Social History. 6 (4): 463–488. doi:10.1353/jsh/6.4.463. ISSN 0022-4529. JSTOR 3786511.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Dew, Charles B. (2016). The making of a racist : a southerner reflects on family, history, and the slave trade. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. pp. 101–103, 117, 144 (last sale). ISBN 9780813938882. LCCN 2015043815.
  4. ^ Rothman, A. (April 1, 2009). "Slavery and National Expansion in the United States". OAH Magazine of History. 23 (2): 23–29. doi:10.1093/maghis/23.2.23. ISSN 0882-228X.
  5. ^ a b c d Sherwin, Oscar (1945). "Trading in Negroes". Negro History Bulletin. 8 (7): 160–166. ISSN 0028-2529. JSTOR 44214396.
  6. ^ Bancroft (2023), p. 96.
  7. ^ Bancroft (2023), p. 125.
  8. ^ Calderhead (1977), p. 197.
  9. ^ Purcell, Aaron D. (2005). "A Spirit for speculation: David Burford, Antebellum Entrepreneur of Middle Tennessee". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 64 (2): 90–109. ISSN 0040-3261.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Tadman, Michael (1996). "The Hidden History of Slave Trading in Antebellum South Carolina: John Springs III and Other "Gentlemen Dealing in Slaves"". The South Carolina Historical Magazine. 97 (1): 6–29. ISSN 0038-3082. JSTOR 27570133.
  11. ^ Westmoreland, Carl B. (2015). "Article 3: The John W. Anderson Slave Pen". Freedom Center Journal. 2015 (1). University of Cincinnati College of Law. ISSN 1942-5856.
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  99. ^ "J. Buddy". The New Orleans Crescent. November 7, 1848. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-08-02.
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  106. ^ "Lodged at the Charleston Workhouse". The Charleston Daily Courier. November 6, 1863. p. 2. Retrieved 2024-10-12.
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  301. ^ "A List of Runaways". Mississippi Free Trader. December 11, 1835. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-11.
  302. ^ "Ranaway from my plantation in Holmes county". National Banner and Daily Advertiser. August 7, 1833. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  303. ^ Rothman, Joshua D. (October 6, 2021). "How the brutal trade in enslaved people has been whitewashed out of U.S. history | Opinion • Pennsylvania Capital-Star". Pennsylvania Capital-Star. Retrieved 2024-07-03.
  304. ^ "Committed to the jail of Covington". The Weekly Mississippian. May 2, 1834. p. 1. Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  305. ^ a b "Affray". The Courier-Journal. December 24, 1852. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
  306. ^ "Democratic Slave Markets (St. Louis, Mo.), T. W. Higginson, New York Tribune". The Liberator. August 1, 1856. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-08-25.
  307. ^ Stowe (1853), p. 356.
  308. ^ Schermerhorn (2016), p. 216.
  309. ^ a b "slavery". Wilmington Journal. December 24, 1858. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-08-17.
  310. ^ a b Brown, John (1855). Chamerovzow, L. A (ed.). Slave life in Georgia: a narrative of the life, sufferings, and escape of John Brown, a fugitive slave, now in England. London: W. M. Watts. pp. 108–126. hdl:2027/coo.31924032774527. Retrieved 2023-09-05 – via HathiTrust.
  311. ^ a b Kendall (1939), p. 152.
  312. ^ "Notice - jail of Amelia County". Richmond Enquirer. November 9, 1830. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  313. ^ "100 Negroes for Sale". The Weekly Telegraph. October 1, 1850. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  314. ^ "Committed to the Jail". The Raleigh Minerva. February 16, 1802. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  315. ^ "Was brought to the Depot at Baton Rouge". Baton-Rouge Gazette. October 8, 1842. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  316. ^ Schermerhorn (2016), p. 214.
  317. ^ Stowe (1853), p. 354.
  318. ^ "For Sale by A. A. McLean". Nashville Union and American. July 13, 1852. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-09-23.
  319. ^ Stowe (1853), p. 339, 352.
  320. ^ "Information Wanted". The Louisville Daily Courier. October 6, 1853. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
  321. ^ "Committed to jail of Mobile county". The Independent Monitor. November 17, 1841. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  322. ^ "Heavy Robbery" Newspapers.com, The Leisure Hour, January 27, 1859, https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-leisure-hour-heavy-robbery/143865533/
  323. ^ "Stop the Runaway!". Fayetteville Weekly Observer. April 23, 1850. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  324. ^ Mooney (1971), p. 48.
  325. ^ a b Coleman, J. Winston (1940). Slavery times in Kentucky. State Library of Pennsylvania. University of North Carolina Press. p. 211.
  326. ^ "FOR SALE". The Mississippi Messenger. January 14, 1808. p. 1. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  327. ^ Mooney (1971), p. 40.
  328. ^ Slave dealer Joseph Meek describes high demand and rigors of market. (1835-09-27). Division of Rare and Manuscript Collections, Cornell University Library; 13; 48. https://jstor.org/stable/community.21813405
  329. ^ https://www.newspapers.com/article/republican-banner-deplorable-shooting-af/143865812/
  330. ^ "Shooting in Richmond". The Charleston Mercury. September 24, 1859. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-11-30.
  331. ^ "100 Negroes Wanted!". Edgefield Advertiser. July 2, 1856. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-08-25.
  332. ^ a b Colby (2024), p. 87.
  333. ^ "Slaves for Sale—No. 165 Gravier Street". The Times-Picayune. January 7, 1847. p. 1. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  334. ^ a b "The Semi-Weekly Mississippi Free Trader 24 Apr 1855, page 5". Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
  335. ^ a b Wilson (2009), p. 27.
  336. ^ James (1993), p. 208.
  337. ^ "Tom, Adams County". The Weekly Natchez Courier. May 10, 1833. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-10-12.
  338. ^ "Negroes! Negroes!" Newspapers.com, Gazette and Sentinel, December 4, 1858, https://www.newspapers.com/article/gazette-and-sentinel-negroes-negroes/143863374/
  339. ^ "Jailor's Notice". The Democrat. December 23, 1846. p. 1. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  340. ^ "Committed to the Chesterfield jail as a runaway". Richmond Enquirer. February 7, 1822. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  341. ^ "Taken up". Western Carolinian. June 22, 1824. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  342. ^ "Agent for the Sale or Purchase of Negroes". Weekly Commercial. October 13, 1848. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-05-30.
  343. ^ "NEGROES, NEGROES. / Emergence of Advertising in America: 1850-1920 / Duke Digital Repository". Duke Digital Collections. Retrieved 2023-12-07.
  344. ^ a b "Committed to Jail". Flag of the Union. October 10, 1835. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-07-05.
  345. ^ "Twenty-Five Dollars Reward". The Weekly Telegraph. April 7, 1846. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  346. ^ "Highway Robbery". The Charleston Daily Courier. August 25, 1830. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  347. ^ "Petition #21285530 Race and Slavery Petitions, Digital Library on American Slavery". dlas.uncg.edu. Retrieved 2024-07-07.
  348. ^ "Fifty Dollars Reward". Georgia Journal and Messenger. June 1, 1853. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  349. ^ "Runaway in Jail". Richmond Enquirer. June 3, 1845. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  350. ^ "Ziba B. Oakes Papers, 1852-1857 - Digital Commonwealth". www.digitalcommonwealth.org. Retrieved 2023-07-14.
  351. ^ "35 Negroes for Sale". The Weekly Telegraph. June 11, 1850. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  352. ^ "Jail of Adams County". The Weekly Natchez Courier. October 12, 1832. p. 7. Retrieved 2024-10-12.
  353. ^ "Owings & Charles". The Times-Picayune. January 21, 1859. p. 5. Retrieved 2024-02-15.
  354. ^ "Bill of Sale by slave dealers". Gail and Stephen Rudin Slavery Collection.
  355. ^ "Runaway in Jail". The Eastern Clarion. May 17, 1861. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  356. ^ "CAUTION". Georgia Journal and Messenger. June 4, 1851. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  357. ^ "Runaway in Jail". Time's Tablet and Mississippi Gazette. September 1, 1830. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  358. ^ "Life of the Rev. Elisha W. Green, one of the founders of the Kentucky normal and theological institute ..." HathiTrust. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-07-12.
  359. ^ "Run-Away in Jail". The Mississippi Free Trader. June 5, 1838. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  360. ^ a b c "Notice—Negroes Wanted". Fayetteville Semi-Weekly Observer. December 15, 1859. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-08-17.
  361. ^ "Thomas Woodward". The Port Gibson Herald, and Correspondent. October 25, 1850. p. 2. Retrieved 2024-10-12.
  362. ^ Colby (2024), p. 34.
  363. ^ "Slaves at Private Sale". The Daily Delta. November 8, 1860. p. 8. Retrieved 2024-07-15.
  364. ^ Menck (2017), p. 30.
  365. ^ "Runaway in Jail". Southern Galaxy. April 22, 1830. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  366. ^ "Notice. The undersigned has removed..." The Weekly Natchez Courier. August 25, 1826. p. 8. Retrieved 2024-08-31.
  367. ^ "Absconded from the undersigned on Saturday night". The Weekly Natchez Courier. October 18, 1828. p. 7. Retrieved 2024-08-31.
  368. ^ Tansey, Richard (1982). "Bernard Kendig and the New Orleans Slave Trade". Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Association. 23 (2): 159–178. ISSN 0024-6816. JSTOR 4232168.
  369. ^ Garrett (2011), p. 511.
  370. ^ "P.J. Porcher and Baya slave sale broadside". Lowcountry Digital Library. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  371. ^ "(SLAVERY AND ABOLITION) PORCHER AND BAYA Slave Dealers. ESTATE SALE". catalogue.swanngalleries.com. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  372. ^ "Domestic Slave Trading in Charleston, SC (1820-1855)". StoryMapJS. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  373. ^ "St. John's River, Florida: The Steamboat Era – Baya's Line" (PDF). debate.org.
  374. ^ "100 Likely Young Negroes". Mississippi Free Trader. October 20, 1847. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
  375. ^ "Runaway" Newspapers.com, The Semi-Weekly Mississippi Free Trader, September 22, 1849, http://www.newspapers.com/article/the-semi-weekly-mississippi-free-trader/143996973/
  376. ^ "$100 Reward". Baton-Rouge Gazette. June 5, 1847. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  377. ^ "Superior Male Cook, at Private Sale". The Charleston Mercury. November 9, 1864. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-07-19.
  378. ^ Bancroft (2023), p. 295.
  379. ^ "Negroes for Sale". Southern Statesman. October 27, 1860. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
  380. ^ "Negroes Wanted and Boarded". St. Louis Post-Dispatch. May 6, 1847. p. 5. Retrieved 2024-05-30.
  381. ^ "Alexandria Gazette 5 January 1860 — Virginia Chronicle: Digital Newspaper Archive". virginiachronicle.com. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  382. ^ Sydnor (1933), pp. 154–155.
  383. ^ "Steamboat Convoy on fire and lost. 29 Apr 1849". Natchez Daily Courier. March 2, 1849. p. 2. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
  384. ^ Wilson, Brandon R. (2023). "Chapter I: Slave Incarceration at the Foundation of Kentucky Finance". In Smith, Gerald L. (ed.). Slavery and Freedom in the Bluegrass State: Revisiting My Old Kentucky Home. Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky. pp. 22 (Pullum). doi:10.2307/j.ctv32nxz6m.4. ISBN 978-0-8131-9616-9. JSTOR j.ctv32nxz6m.4.
  385. ^ a b Colby, Robert (2023). "Chapter 11: Waiting for Fevers to Abate: The Contagion and Fear in the Domestic Slave Trade". In Cooper, Mandy L.; Popp, Andrew (eds.). Business of Emotions in Modern History. London: Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 219–239. doi:10.5040/9781350268876.ch-11. ISBN 978-1-3502-6249-2. OCLC 1294194709.
  386. ^ "Committed to the Jail of Amite County, Mississippi". Southern Planter. January 26, 1832. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  387. ^ "The Liberator" Genius of Universal Emancipation 1831-04: Vol 11 p 190. Internet Archive. Open Court Publishing Co. April 1831.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  388. ^ "Henry from Virginia". Hinds County Gazette. February 13, 1851. p. 1. Retrieved 2024-10-12.
  389. ^ Williams (2020), p. 287.
  390. ^ "Negroes Wanted". Lynchburg Daily Virginian. December 17, 1852. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
  391. ^ "21085353 - Race and Slavery Petitions, Digital Library on American Slavery". dlas.uncg.edu. Retrieved 2024-02-17.
  392. ^ "Committed". Florence Gazette. July 11, 1860. p. 2. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
  393. ^ "Lewis of Tennessee". Columbus Democrat. December 16, 1837. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-10-12.
  394. ^ "Police Court". The Louisville Daily Courier. July 10, 1855. p. 8. Retrieved 2024-05-26.
  395. ^ Schermerhorn (2016), p. 220.
  396. ^ "Committed to the Jail". The Democrat. September 19, 1849. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
  397. ^ a b Garrett (2011), p. 495.
  398. ^ a b Colby (2024), p. 94.
  399. ^ "William Rochel". The Weekly Democrat. April 2, 1810. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-09-10.
  400. ^ "Brought to Jail". Weekly Columbus Enquirer. January 10, 1854. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-06-02.
  401. ^ "Ten Dollars Reward". The North-Carolina Star. May 17, 1811. p. 1. Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  402. ^ "Committed". The Weekly Advertiser. December 9, 1851. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  403. ^ "$20 Reward". The Weekly Mississippian. May 5, 1848. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-06-24.
  404. ^ Wilson (2009), p. 10.
  405. ^ a b "Awful Tragedy". The Louisville Daily Courier. February 21, 1848. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
  406. ^ David Ross, 1861, 633 E Jefferson, Louisville, Kentucky, USA, Late Negro Trader in Louisville, Kentucky, City Directory, 1861 Ancestry.com. U.S., City Directories, 1822-1995[database on-line].
  407. ^ a b c "A Guide to the Lynchburg (Va.) Chancery Cause, Exrs. of Joseph Pettyjohn vs. Exr. of Seth Woodroof, 1904 Lynchburg (Va.) Chancery Cause, Exrs. of Joseph Pettyjohn vs. Exr. of Seth Woodroof, 1904 1904-065". ead.lib.virginia.edu. Retrieved 2023-08-16.
  408. ^ Stowe (1853), p. 343.
  409. ^ a b Purcell, Aaron D. (2005). "A Spirit for speculation: David Burford, Antebellum Entrepreneur of Middle Tennessee". Tennessee Historical Quarterly. 64 (2): 90–109. ISSN 0040-3261. JSTOR 42631252.
  410. ^ "Aug 21, 1849, page 3 - The Sumter Banner at Newspapers.com". Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2024-05-30.
  411. ^ "Runaway Slave in Jail" Newspapers.com, True Democrat, February 21, 1855, https://www.newspapers.com/true-democrat-runaway-slave-in-jail/143864801/
  412. ^ "Notice". Weekly Raleigh Register. September 12, 1822. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  413. ^ "Brought to Jail in Bibb County". The Weekly Telegraph. September 10, 1850. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  414. ^ "Condemnation". The Charleston Daily Courier. June 6, 1826. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  415. ^ "History of Monroe and Shelby counties, Missouri ... including a history of their townships, towns, and villages ... c.1". HathiTrust. p. 379. Retrieved 2024-07-12.
  416. ^ Williams (2020).
  417. ^ Johnson (2009), p. 41, 47.
  418. ^ "Groves v. Slaughter, 40 U.S. 449 (1841)". Justia Law.
  419. ^ Ball (2014), p. 336.
  420. ^ Colby (2024), p. 69.
  421. ^ Genius of Universal Emancipation 1830-01-22: Vol 4 Iss 20. Internet Archive. Open Court Publishing Co. January 22, 1830.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  422. ^ Racine, Philip N.; Racine, Francis M.; Smith, William James (2020). Backcountry slave trader: William James Smith's enterprise, 1844–1854. New studies in southern history. Lanham: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-1-4985-9083-9.
  423. ^ Plater, David D. (2015). The Butlers of Iberville Parish, Louisiana: Dunboyne Plantation in the 1800s. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 978-0-8071-6128-9. Project MUSE book 48467.
  424. ^ "S - Letters Waiting". The Charleston Daily Courier. August 12, 1850. p. 1. Retrieved 2024-10-12.
  425. ^ "John, committed to jail in Warren County". Vicksburg Daily Whig. August 16, 1853. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-10-12.
  426. ^ Colby (2024), p. 92, 98.
  427. ^ "Runaway Negro in Jail". The Arkansas Gazette. July 21, 1830. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  428. ^ "1826 Enslaved Revolt on Ohio River · Notable Kentucky African Americans Database". nkaa.uky.edu. Retrieved 2024-06-30.
  429. ^ "Was committed to Chesterfield county jail". Richmond Enquirer. June 27, 1826. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  430. ^ "Murder and Attempted Suicide". The Times-Picayune. November 11, 1857. p. 6. Retrieved 2023-08-16.
  431. ^ "To Hire, Sell and Rent". The Daily Constitutionalist and Republic. December 30, 1846. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
  432. ^ Kytle & Roberts (2018), pp. 34–35.
  433. ^ Schermerhorn (2016), p. 218.
  434. ^ "10 Dollars Reward". Vicksburg Whig. May 28, 1835. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  435. ^ "Talbot". The National Era. June 2, 1853. p. 1. Retrieved 2024-08-03.
  436. ^ "Virginia Negroes for Sale". Piney Woods Planter. April 27, 1839. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
  437. ^ "Yesterday Back, a slave of J. T. Taylor..." The Daily Delta. December 13, 1845. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  438. ^ "For Sale". Mississippi Gazette. February 28, 1828. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-09-01.
  439. ^ "To the Public". The New Orleans Crescent. June 3, 1848. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-02-15.
  440. ^ "Race and Slavery Petitions, Digital Library on American Slavery". dlas.uncg.edu. Retrieved 2024-06-26.
  441. ^ "Committed". Knoxville Register. June 20, 1823. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  442. ^ "Boots and Ned". The Weekly Mississippian. July 22, 1842. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  443. ^ a b "Alarming Occurrence". Fayetteville Weekly Observer. May 20, 1824. p. 2. Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  444. ^ "Negroes! Negroes!! For Sale". The Daily Constitutionalist and Republic. September 29, 1847. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
  445. ^ "Committed to the Jail". The Democrat. November 26, 1842. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  446. ^ Libby (2004), p. 1244.
  447. ^ "Taken up and committed to jail". The Hillsborough Recorder. June 14, 1820. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  448. ^ "Urley, a notorious negro trader and counterfeiter". Middlebury Free Press 1831-1837. September 8, 1835. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  449. ^ "RANAWAY". Georgia Journal and Messenger. September 19, 1849. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  450. ^ Kendall (1939), p. 155.
  451. ^ "Jailor's Notice". Weekly Raleigh Register. April 20, 1839. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  452. ^ "Brought to Jail". The Daily Constitutionalist and Republic. August 10, 1860. p. 2. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  453. ^ "South Carolina Money". Memphis Evening Ledger. October 29, 1857. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-08-15.
  454. ^ "Tragical Affair". The Louisville Daily Courier. December 1, 1851. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-01-12.
  455. ^ "Runaways in Jail" Newspapers.com, Vicksburg Daily Whig, April 21, 1858, https://www.newspapers.com/article/vicksburg-daily-whig-runaways-in-jail/143865165/
  456. ^ "$50 Reward". The Daily Constitutionalist and Republic. June 22, 1847. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  457. ^ "Claiborne Co. Port Gibson". The Concordia Intelligencer. March 31, 1854. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  458. ^ "Notice". The North-Carolinian. December 16, 1843. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  459. ^ "Committed to the jail of Warren county". Vicksburg Whig. January 15, 1844. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  460. ^ "Jail of Mobile County". The Democrat. November 16, 1839. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  461. ^ Bancroft (2023), p. 378.
  462. ^ Libby (2004), 764.
  463. ^ "Cash for Negroes". Nashville Union and American. October 6, 1852. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  464. ^ "$100 Runaway". Cahawba Democrat. June 16, 1838. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-06-21.
  465. ^ "cash for negroes". The Baltimore Sun. January 17, 1860. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-08-14.
  466. ^ "Muscogee County". Daily Columbus Enquirer. November 1, 1856. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-07-06.
  467. ^ "David Wise of New Orleans". Anti-Slavery Bugle. March 1, 1856. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-05-24.
  468. ^ Stowe (1853), p. 340.
  469. ^ "120 Negroes for Sale". Statesman and Gazette. February 7, 1827. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-08-21.
  470. ^ Calderhead (1977), p. 198.
  471. ^ a b "Negroes for Sale". Mississippi Gazette. November 14, 1829. p. 3. Retrieved 2024-08-15.
  472. ^ Lindsey, William D. (August 4, 2023). "Samuel Kerr Green (1790-1860): The Years Working on James Hopkins' Plantation in New Orleans, Early 1830s". Begats and Bequeathals. Retrieved 2023-09-30.
  473. ^ "Was committed to the jail of Hanover County". Richmond Enquirer. August 18, 1829. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  474. ^ Schermerhorn (2015), pp. 50.
  475. ^ "North-Carolina Free Press 23 Apr 1830, page 4". Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2023-09-17.
  476. ^ "To the Public". Weekly Raleigh Register. May 7, 1824. p. 4. Retrieved 2024-06-23.
  477. ^ "Committed to the jail". The Tennessean. November 22, 1843. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  478. ^ "Committed on the 7th of October 1841". Baton-Rouge Gazette. November 20, 1841. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-09-18.
  479. ^ Colby (2024), p. 85.

Sources

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