The Rakhine people (Burmese and Rakhine : ရခိုင်လူမျိုး) or Arakanese are a Southeast Asian ethnic group in Myanmar (Burma) forming the majority along the coastal region of present-day Rakhine State (formerly called Arakan), although Rakhine communities also exist throughout the country, particularly in the Ayeyarwady and Yangon Regions. They constitute approximately 4.61% or more of Myanmar's total population. Rakhine communities exist in Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts and in India, where they are known as the Marma and Magh peoples respectively.
Arakanese (Rakhine) | |
|---|---|
 Flag of the Rakhine State | |
 A Rakhine girl tosses water at revellers during the Thingyan. | |
| Total population | |
| 4 million (2024 est.) | |
| Regions with significant populations | |
 Myanmar | 3,100,00 (2014)[1] |
 Bangladesh | 224,261[2] |
 India | 50,000 |
| Other countries | 50,000 - 100,000 |
| Languages | |
| Rakhine, Burmese | |
| Religion | |
.svg){kind=small} Theravada Buddhism (Official) | |
| Related ethnic groups | |
Rakhine people consist of seven different ethnic groups, namely Rakhine, Kamein, Kwe Myi, Daingnet people, Maramagyi, Mru people and Thet. Among them, Rakhine group are the majority ethnic group in Rakhine State and have long been influenced by their proximity to India and have formed trading links with the sub-continents. Thet, Kamein, Daingnet and Marma people are the minority ethnic groups and they live in the hills.
The Arakanese are predominantly Theravada Buddhist. Their language has some similarities with Burmese language and also very similar to Burma in culture and traditional dress. They have developed their own kingdoms, dynasties, scripts, coins, costumes, culture, and dialects, showcasing a rich and distinct heritage. They also have their own ethnic armed group in Myanmar's Rakhine State known as the Arakan Army.
The Rakhine people have a variety of appearances, showing a mix of traits from both South Asian and Mongoloid backgrounds. They have range of skin tones, typically ranging from light to medium brown.
The Rakhine people celebrate several key festivals. Sangrain, or the Water Festival, marks the New Year with joyful water-throwing to wash away the old year. Buddha Purnima honors the birth, enlightenment, and death of the Buddha, featuring prayers and offerings at monasteries. Madhu Purnima in which they celebrate the Buddha’s first sermon, where followers offer respect and alms to monks. These festivals strengthen community ties and showcase of the culture.
Rakhine men mostly wear a sarong called lungyi, while the women also wear a sarong called thabein.
Ethnonyms
edit"Rakhine" (less commonly spelt Rakhaing) is the contemporary ethnonym and name of the region in Rakhine, Burmese, and English today.[3] The word is extant to the mid-11th century, appearing on a pillar inscription at Shite-thaung Temple, and also appears in European, Persian, and Ceylonese accounts by the 15th century.[3] U Kala's Maha Yazawin traces the word's etymology to Alaungsithu's conquest of the region during the Pagan era, but epigraphic evidence to support the underlying theory remains scant.[3] Arthur Phayre traces the etymology to the Sanskrit or Pali words for 'monster' or 'demon' (rākṣasa and rakkhasa) respectively, which is more likely.[3][4] Some Rakhine inhabitants now prefer the alternative spelling of ရက္ခိုင်.[5]
Between the 17th and 18th centuries, the Rakhine began calling themselves Mranma (မြန်မာ) and its derivatives, as attested by texts like the Rakhine Minrazagri Ayedaw Sadan and the Dhanyawaddy Ayedawbon.[6][3] The word, which is also cognate with Bamar and is the Rakhine pronunciation of "Myanmar," continues to be used by their descendants in Bangladesh, who are known as the Marma.[6] By this period, the Bamar began to call the Rakhine the Myanmagyi (မြန်မာကြီး; lit. 'great Mranma / Myanma'), as attested by contemporaneous Burmese and foreign sources.[6] The ethnonym reflected their common ancestral kinship ties with the Buddhist-professing Bamar, with whom the Rakhine identified.[6]
By 1585, European, Persian, and Bengali accounts began describing the Rakhine and Buddhist groups like Barua people as the Magh and its derivatives (e.g., Mogh, Mugh, Mog, etc.).[3] The word's etymology is likely to derive from Magadha, the name of an ancient Buddhist kingdom.[6] By the late 19th century, British authorities adopted the ethnonym Arakanese. After 1991, the Burmese government changed the official English name of the ethnic group to Rakhine, as part of a broader effort to indigenize the country's English ethnonyms and place names.[7][8]
History of Rakhine
editThe Rakhine State, also known as Arakan, in Myanmar is the home to the Rakhine people. The history of Rakhine is divided into seven parts - the independent kingdoms of Dhanyawadi, Waithali, Lemro, Mrauk U, Burmese occupation from 1785 to 1826, British rule from 1826 to 1948 and as a part of independent Burma from 1948.
Dhanyawadi is considered the first Kingdom of Arakan. Established around the 1st century CE, it served as a significant cultural and political center in the region. The kingdom is known for its flourishing trade, connecting Southeast Asia with the Indian subcontinent. Dhanyawadi's influence laid the groundwork for subsequent kingdoms in Arakan, contributing to the development of its unique cultural identity, which blends various influences from neighboring regions. The remnants of Dhanyawadi's architecture and artifacts offer insights into the early history and society of Arakan.
It has been estimated that the centre of power of the Arakanese world shifted from Dhanyawadi to Waithali in the 4th century AD as Dhanyawadi Kingdom ended in 370 CE. Although it was established later than Dhanyawadi, Waithali is the most Indianized of the four Arakanese kingdoms to emerge. The first ruler of the Waithali Kingdom was Bahubali. Like all of the Arakanese Kingdoms to emerge, the Kingdom of Waithali was based on trade between the East (Pyu city-states, China, the Mons), and the West (India, Bengal, and Persia).[citation needed] The kingdom flourished off of China-India maritime routes.
King Min Hti is one of the famous Arakan king known for being the longest reigning monarch in the whole world history, although the exact length of his reign is unknown. It is known that he ruled the Launggyet Dynasty of Arakan from c. 1279 to 1373/74.
-
King Min Hti of Arakan -
Maha Thammada, the last king of Arakan -
Anawrahta, king of Launggyet Arakan -
King Min Bin Statue -
King Sanda Thudhamma of Arakan.
All the Arakan kingdoms has always been predominantly Buddhist, with the majority known today as the Rakhine people. Although some of the kings had Muslim titles (nicknames) during the Kingdom of Mrauk U, as it was under Bengal Sultanate influence, none of them adopted the religion; they remained as Buddhists.
The Kingdom of Mrauk U was the largest kingdom of the Arakan (Rakhine) Kingdom, encompassing the Chittagong region of Bangladesh and the Rakhine State of Myanmar. Arakanese chronicle records that more than six million shrines and pagodas flourished in Mrauk-U. A British archaeologist, Emil Forchhammer noted that "in durability, architectural skill, and ornamentation the Mrauk-U temples far surpass those on the banks of Irrawaddy." Illustrative examples of Mrauk U period architecture include the Shite-thaung and Htukkanthein Temples.
The Rakhine State and its people are predominantly Theravada Buddhist. This religious tradition plays a central role in the cultural and social life of the Rakhine community, influencing their festivals, rituals, and daily practices. Buddhism in Rakhine is characterized by its rich history, unique interpretations, and a blend of local customs, reflecting the region's diverse cultural heritage.
The Arakan king Min Razagyi (1593–1612) conquered the areas and styled himself as the highest and most powerful king of Arakan, Chacomas, and Bengal in a 1607 letter to Portuguese mercenary Filipe de Brito e Nicote.
In 1546 CE, while the Arakanese king Min Bin was fighting a battle with the Burmese, the Sak king attacked Northern Arakan Roma and occupied the Arakanese-controlled Chacomas of the Northern Arakan Mountains. After his initial military successes against Bengal and Tripura (1532–34), Min Bin began to regard himself "as a world conqueror or cakravartin", and in commemoration of his victory in Bengal he built the Shitthaung Temple, one of the premier Buddhist Pagodas of Mrauk-U. His expansionist drive was to run into serious obstacles however. His control of Bengal beyond Chittagong was largely nominal and he, like the sultans of Bengal before him, never solved Tripuri raids into Bengal. Moreover, his interference in Lower Burma (1542) against Toungoo provoked Toungoo invasions in (1545–47) that nearly toppled his regime. He survived the invasions and later provided military aid to Ava, hoping to stop Toungoo's advance into Upper Burma.
During the Second World War, Rakhine (Arakan) was given autonomy under the Japanese occupation and was even granted its own army known as the Arakan Defence Force. The Arakan Defence Force went over to the Allies and turned against the Japanese in early 1945.
Upon the independence of the Union of Burma in 1948, Rakhine (Arakan) became a division of it. Shortly after, violence broke out along religious lines between Buddhists and Muslims. Later there were calls for secession by the Rakhine (Arakan), but such attempts were subdued.[citation needed] In 1974, the Ne Win government's new constitution granted Rakhine (Arakan) Division the status of a Union state. In 1989, the name of Arakan State was changed to "Rakhine" by the military junta.
Ancestral origins
editThis article relies largely or entirely on a single source. (March 2023) |
Arakanese legends and some Rakhine people claim that they are Aryans came from Shakya in India. On the other hand, they might be mixed with Indo-Aryans and Tibeto-Burman. Kanyans of Irrawaddy Valley with later integrated into Arakanese race. Rakhine and Burmese are very closely related languages, which both descend from Old Burmese. 3000 or 2800 years ago, The Chandra dynasty that ruled Dhanyawadi and Waithali was more likely Indo-Aryan in origin. Arakanese legends claim that the Unknown ethnic are founder of Dhanyawadi. Now they are mixed with Rakhine people.[9][10]
By the 9th century Rakhine people have founded Le-Mro, Le-Mro in the Rakhine language means "four cities," which refers to the four ancient Rakhine cities. In 1103, they had consolidated control of the region, becoming a tributary state of the Pagan Empire until 1167. In 1406–1429, Kingdom of Ava occupied the Northern Rakhine. Southern Rakhine was not occupied by the Bagan Empire and the Ava Kingdom. In 1429, founder of Kingdom of Mrauk U, the king Min Saw Mon reclaimed the Arakanese throne with the help of the Bengal, and ruled the kingdom. But as a vassal of Bengal 1429 to 1430.[9] Rakhine oral traditions and written records also describe several alternative origin myths, including one that traces the Rakhine back to an intermarriage between a highland Mro and a lowland queen, and another that traces the ancestry of Rakhine monarchs back to Mahasammata, the legendary first monarch of the world.[11]
After the Kingdom of Mrauk U was annexed by the Konbaung Kingdom in 1784, Rakhine refugees began settling in Cox's Bazar and Patuakhali District. The British colonial officer of the East India Trading Company, Captain Hiram Cox, was given the task of providing land to the refugees in 1799. An estimated 100,000 refugees were settled in Cox's Bazar, Chittagong Hill Tracts, and Patuakhali by the East India Company government.[12] They settled in Patuakhali District and Barguna District in the 19th century.[13] Rakhine descendants spread as far north as Tripura state in India, where they are known as the Mog.
Historically, all Rakhine people practiced Buddhism.
Genetic makeup
editIt can be difficult to distinguish a Rakhine person from a Bamar people based solely on physical appearance, unless the individual is wearing traditional Rakhine clothing or speaking the Rakhine language. The Rakhine language is part of the Sino-Tibetan language family and shares a close relationship with the Burmese language, with the predominant ethnic group in Myanmar. Among the various Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in the country, Rakhine stands out for its strong similarity to Burmese. Some experts contend that the Rakhine language itself might be just a dialect of Burmese.
The Rakhine people display a notable range of physical appearances, featuring both South Asian and Mongoloid traits. Despite this diversity, all identify as Rakhine, a community comprising seven ethnic groups. The Rakhine have embraced Buddhism since the era of The Buddha. Some legends suggest that they are descendants of the Sakya Kingdom, which faced downfall, leading many to escape and establish themselves in present-day Rakhine. The Rakhine are one of the major ethnic groups in Myanmar.
Some Rakhine people can be recognized by their mixed backgrounds, which often show South Asian features or through Skin colors, or both. The Rakhine people are known to be not related to Bangladeshi backgrounds. Their names are typically in Rakhine, often resembling Burmese names.
Arakan Army
edit
The Arakan Army is an ethno-nationalist armed organisation predominantly composed of Rakhine people who follow Theravada Buddhism. Founded in April 2009, the AA is the military wing of the United League of Arakan (ULA). It is currently led by Commander-in-Chief Major General Twan Mrat Naing and vice deputy commander-in-chief Brigadier General Nyo Twan Awng. The Arakan Army states that the objective of its armed revolution is to restore the sovereignty of the Arakan people. It was declared a terrorist organization in 2020 by Myanmar, and again by the State Administration Council junta in 2024.
The ideology of the Arakan Army is centered on the following:
- Arakanese Nationalism: A focus on promoting and preserving the identity and culture of the Arakanese people.
- Arakanese Self-Determination: Advocacy for the right of the Arakanese to govern themselves and make decisions about their own political future.
- Confederalism: Support for a confederal system that allows for greater autonomy and self-governance within a broader political framework.
- Anti-Rohingya Sentiment: A stance that opposes the recognition and rights of the Rohingya people within Rakhine State, contributing to ongoing tensions in the region.
The Rakhine Army has significantly challenged the Burmese junta's military might, often achieving surprising victories that showcase its strength and strategic prowess.
The AA's operational capabilities were notably highlighted during Operation 1027, a coordinated offensive aimed at key military targets in Rakhine State. This operation demonstrated the AA's ability to mobilize effectively, utilize guerilla tactics, and leverage local support, leading to significant setbacks for the junta. The operation underscored the AA's determination and skill, establishing it as one of the strongest ethnic armed forces in Myanmar.
With a focus on defending their homeland and securing rights for the Rakhine people, the Arakan Army has garnered considerable support among local populations. Their success against the junta not only boosts their reputation but also inspires other ethnic groups in Myanmar, as the AA continues to assert its influence and military strength in the ongoing struggle for autonomy and justice.
Rakhine in Bangladesh
editOutside of Myanmar, a sizable Rakhine community exists in the southeast districts of Bangladesh, namely in Khagrachari, Rangamati, Bandarban and southern Cox's Bazar, with the Mong circle in Khagrachari having administrative duties. There is a small community of Rakhine people inhabiting the coastal areas of Patuakhali, Borguna and Cox's Bazar, having migrated to Bangladesh from Myanmar before the formation of these two contemporary countries. The total population of the community as of 2020 is 16,000.[14] But according to the Joshua Project, the total population is 20,000.[15] The Rakhine people and the local Bengali population developed a unique dialect through which they could communicate. The Rakhine people were able to preserve their culture, language, and religion in Bengal. Rakhines observe Rakhine festival such as Sanggreng and Nai-chai ka.[12] The last Rakhine language school in Kuakata closed in 1998 due to shortage of funds, In January 2006, Chin Than Monjur, opened a Rakhine language community school which expanded into three news schools and used Rakhine language books from Myanmar. The schools were forced to close due to shortage of funds.[16] In summary, the Rakhine people mainly resides in Cox's Bazar and the Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh. Their presence reflects a rich culture but also highlights the challenges they face, such as issues with identity.
Persecution
editThe 150-year old Khaddya Song Chansai Rakhine cemetery in Taltali Upazila, Barguna District, was forcefully taken by local land grabbers in 2017. The Rakhine population in the Barguna and Patuakhali Districts decreased by 95%, from 50,000 in the 20th century to 2,561 in 2014, with Rakhines leaving Bangladesh due to illegal land-grabbing and persecution. Lands owned by them in the districts decreased by 81%.[17][18] Rakhine land is also being taken over by politicians in Patuakhali District.[19][20] Recognizing their situation is important for promoting their rights and improving their lives.
Culture
edit.png)
The Rakhine are predominantly Theravada Buddhists and are one of the four main Buddhist ethnic groups of Burma (the others being the Burman, Shan and Mon people). Rakhine culture is similar to the mainstream Burmese culture but with more Indian influence, likely due to its geographical isolation from the Burmese mainland divided by the Arakan Mountains and its closer proximity to India. Traces of Indian influence remain in many aspects of Arakanese culture, including its literature, music, and cuisine. The traditional Rakhine kyin wrestling also plays an important role in its culture. Rakhine mont di, consisting of rice vermicelli noodles, is popular across Myanmar.
They have a rich cultural heritage that reflects their history, beliefs, and way of life. Despite facing challenges, including political and social strife, they continue to celebrate and preserve their rich cultural heritage, contributing to the diversity of Myanmar.
Religion
editAlmost all Rakhine people are followers of Theravada Buddhism. Rakhine State is also home to many Buddhist temples, reflecting the region's strong spiritual heritage. Buddhism is the majority religion and a central part of their identity.
Rakhine people those who live in Bangladesh, mainly residing in the Chittagong Hill Tracts who are also known as the Marma people follows Buddhism. In India, there may be a small minority following Hinduism or Christianity as well.
Festivals
editSangrai festival
editSangrai is one of the main traditional ceremonies of the Marmas, the Rakhine also celebrate the New Year with their own rules. In the case of the Marmas, it is celebrated according to their Burmese calendar.
The main attraction of Sangrai is the water sport called Marmara "Ri Long Poye". This water sports festival is held on the last day of Sangrai festival. Sangrai water sports are performed not only by the Marmas, but also by the Dai tribes of Southeast Asia, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and China in mid-April. In Myanmar, such events are called "Thingyan" and in Thailand and Laos this ceremony is called "Sankran". "Sankran" in Thai means change. Sangrai actually means saying goodbye to the old year and welcoming the new year. At the same time, the new Jhum farming season in the Chittagong Hill Tracts begins after Sangrai. Not only Jhum farming, the Marmaras do not get married again after the Maghi full moon until Sangrai, which means that the Marmaras in Sangrai mean to start anew by throwing away all the old things, including the beginning of the new year. And so the Marmaras celebrate the New Year with a joyous ceremony in the hope of blessings and good wishes.
Buddha Purnima
editThe Rakhine People also observe the Buddha Purnima or internationally known as Vesak. It is also known as Buddha Birthday worldwide. This is the anniversary of three important events in Buddha's life—his birth, his attainment of enlightenment, and his death. It is observed on the full moon day of the month of Vaisakha (usually in May).
Pavarana Purnima
editPavarana is a Buddhist holy day which is also celebrated by the Rakhine people on Aashvin full moon of the lunar month. This usually occurs on the full moon of the 11th month. It marks the end of the three lunar months of Vassa, sometimes called "Buddhist Lent." The day is marked in some Asian countries where Theravada Buddhism is practiced.
On this day at night, lanterns are blown into the sky to honor the heritage of Gautam Buddha.
Language
editThe Rakhine language is closely related to and generally mutually intelligible with Burmese. Notably, Rakhine retains an /r/ sound that has become /j/ in Burmese. Rakhine utilises the Burmese alphabet.
It is a Tibeto-Burman language spoken in western Myanmar, primarily in the Rakhine State. Closely related to Burmese, the language is spoken by the Rakhine and Marma peoples; it is estimated to have around one million native speakers and it is spoken as a second language by a further million.
Rakhine State is home to Sanskrit inscriptions that date from the first millennium to the 1000s. These inscriptions were written in Northern Brahmic scripts (namely Siddham or Gaudi), which are ancestral to the Bengali script. However, these inscriptions are not ancestral to Arakanese epigraphy, which uses the Mon–Burmese script. While some Arakanese have coined the term "Rakkhawunna" (Rakkhavaṇṇa) to describe a script that predates the usage of written Burmese, there is no contemporary lithic evidence to support the existence of such a script.
Notable Rakhine
edit- Min Saw Mon, founder of Mrauk-U Dynasty
- Min Hti, king of Launggyet Arakan and the longest reigning monarch in history
- Aung Zan Wai, politician
- Nay Toe, actor
- Pe Myint, government minister
- U Ottama, colonial activist and monk
- Twan Mrat Naing, Arakanese revolutionary and commander in chief of the Arakan Army
- Nyo Twan Awng, Vice commander in chief of the Arakan Army
- Aung Lwin, Arakanese actor and director
- Kyaw Zaw Oo, Arakanese politician
- Daw Kyan, historian and writer
- Kaiser, musician
- Zun Than Sin, model, musician, and beauty pageant titleholder
- Yadanar Phyu Phyu Aung, actress and singer
- Thar Nge, singer
- Nay Htet Lin, actor
- Shine, musician
- Min Thway, actor & singer
- Aye Tha Aung, politician
- Letya Min Nan, founder of the Parein Dynasty of Arakan.
- Aye Maung, politician and chairperson of the Arakan National Party
- Kyaw Kyaw, politician
- Min Thway, singer and actor
- Thar Nge, singer
- Kyaw Soe Oo, Myanmar Reuters journalist
- Wai Sein Aung, politician
- Maung Maung Win, footballer
- Thiha Htet Aung, footballer
- Aye Nu Sein, lawyer and politician
- Saw Thanda, queen consort to four consecutive of kings of Arakan.
- Yadanar My, singer
- Honey Nway Oo, former actress and current officer in the Student Armed Force (SAF).
- Chue Lay, Actress
- Aung Rakhine, Bangladeshi Rakhine Film Director
- Kyaw Kyaw Win, politician and lawyer
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ "Overviews of Myanmar's diversity" (PDF).
- ^ "Table 1.4 Ethnic Population by Group and Sex" (PDF) (in Bengali). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. 2021. p. 33. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 March 2023. Retrieved 24 August 2022.
- ^ a b c d e f Charney, Michael (November 2005). ""Theories and Historiography of the Religious Basis of Ethnonyms in Rakhaing (Arakan), Myanmar (Burma)"" (PDF). The Forgotten Kingdom of Arakan: A Public Seminar on the People of Present Day Arakan State of Myanmar.
- ^ In Burmese and Rakhine, the Sanskrit and Pali spellings are ရာက္ၑသ and ရက္ခသ respectively.
- ^ "ရခိုင်ပြည်နယ်". Constitutional Tribunal of Myanmar. Retrieved 4 March 2023.
- ^ a b c d e Kyaw Minn Htin (December 2015). "The Marma from Bangladesh: A 'de-Arakanized' Community in Chittagong Hill Tracts" (PDF). Suvannabhumi. 7 (2): 133–153.
- ^ Leider, Jacques P. (2015). "Competing Identities and the Hybridized History of the Rohingyas". In Egreteau, Renaud; Robinne, Francois (eds.). Metamorphosis: Studies in Social and Political Change in Myanmar (PDF). NUS Press.
- ^ Day, Katie; Edwards, Elise M. (31 December 2020). The Routledge Handbook of Religion and Cities. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-000-28926-8.
- ^ a b Ethnic Culture Traditional Customs Rakhine 1976 (Burmese: တိုင်းရင်းသားယဉ်ကျေးမှု ရိုးရာဓလေ့ထုံးစံများ ရခိုင် ၁၉၇၆) page 33 and 36
- ^ LaPolla, Randy J.; Thurgood, Graham (17 May 2006). The Sino-Tibetan Languages. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-135-79717-1.
- ^ Charney, Michael W. (31 August 2021), "Religion and Migration in Rakhine", Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Asian History, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780190277727.013.414, ISBN 978-0-19-027772-7, retrieved 11 September 2022
- ^ a b Hasan, Kamrul. "Rakhain, The". en.banglapedia.org. Banglapedia. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
- ^ "Thousands of Rakhine people left country". The Daily Star. 2 September 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
- ^ Khiam, Sharif (12 October 2020). "Ethnic Rakhine in Bangladesh Protest against Myanmar's 'Military Aggression'". Benar News. Retrieved 27 October 2020.
- ^ "Rakhine people who speak Sittwe Dialect". Retrieved 22 July 2010.
- ^ "Reopen the lone Rakhine language school in Kuakata". The Daily Star. 7 March 2011. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
- ^ "Thousands of Rakhines left Bangladesh". The Daily Star. 30 March 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
- ^ "Market on Rakhine temple's land". The Daily Star. 27 October 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
- ^ "AL, BNP men's joint grabbing of Kuakata Rakhine land protested". The Daily Star. 15 July 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
- ^ "Give constitutional recognition to indigenous people". The Daily Star. 1 October 2010. Retrieved 7 January 2018.
Bibliography
edit- Charney, Michael W. (1999). 'Where Jambudipa and Islamdom Converged: Religious Change and the Emergence of Buddhist Communalism in Early Modern Arakan, 15th–19th Centuries.' PhD Dissertation, University of Michigan.
- Charney, Michael (2005). Buddhism in Arakan:Theories and Historiography of the Religious Basis of Ethnonyms. Arakan History Conference. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University. Archived from the original on 26 September 2021. Retrieved 10 July 2012.
- Leider, Jacques P. (2004). 'Le Royaume d'Arakan, Birmanie. Son histoire politique entre le début du XVe et la fin du XVIIe siècle,' Paris, EFEO.
- Loeffner, L. G. (1976). "Historical Phonology of Burmese and Arakanese Finals." Ninth International Conference on Sino-Tibetan Languages and Linguistics, Copenhagen. 22–24 Oct. 1976.