In Middle Chinese, the phonological system of medieval rime dictionaries and rime tables, the final is the rest of the syllable after the initial consonant. This analysis is derived from the traditional Chinese fanqie system of indicating pronunciation with a pair of characters indicating the sounds of the initial and final parts of the syllable respectively, though in both cases several characters were used for each sound. Reconstruction of the pronunciation of finals is much more difficult than for initials due to the combination of multiple phonemes into a single class, and there is no agreement as to their values. Because of this lack of consensus, understanding of the reconstruction of finals requires delving into the details of rime tables and rime dictionaries.[1]
Finals and rhyme classes
editEach final is contained within a single rhyme class, but a rhyme class may contain more than one final:[2]
- Several rhyme classes contain both "open" and "closed" finals, thought to be distinguished by the absence or presence of a medial /w/.
- Six rhyme classes contain finals that appear to be distinguished according to the absence or presence of medial /j/: 戈 (closed) -wa, -jwa (rows 1 and 3); 麻 -æ, -jæ (rows 2 and 3); 庚 -æng, -jæng (rows 2 and 3); 陌 -æk, -jæk (rows 2 and 3); 東 -uwng, -juwng (rows 1 and 3); 屋 -uwk, -juwk (rows 1 and 3).
- Some so-called chóngniǔ rhyme classes contain two finals after a labial, velar and laryngeal initials, one placed in row 3 and the other in row 4. (The finals are not distinguished after dental or sibilant initials, and scholars disagree on which of the two finals these should be allocated to.) In all such cases, the paired finals have identical outcomes in all modern Chinese dialects as well as in Sino-Japanese borrowings, and are generally palatalized; with sporadic exceptions.[3][4] However, in Sino-Vietnamese and Sino-Korean only the row-4 finals have such palatalization. Karlgren ignored the difference, but all modern linguists consider the distinction important, though they do not agree on its realization. Li's and Baxter's transcriptions adopt a convention of using /ji/ the row-4 finals in contrast to /j/ or /i/ for the row-3 finals.[5]
Classes of finals
editKarlgren noticed that classes of finals from the rime dictionaries were placed in different rows of the rime tables. As three classes of final were confined to the first, second and fourth rows respectively, he named them finals of divisions I, II and IV. The remaining finals he called "division-III finals" because they occurred in the third row of the tables. Some of these (the "pure" or "independent" division-III finals) occurred only in that row, while others (the "mixed" finals) could also occur in the second or fourth rows with some initials.[6] Karlgren disregarded the chongniu distinction, but later workers have emphasized its importance. Li Rong, in a systematic comparison of the rhyme tables with a recently discovered early edition of the Qieyun, identified seven classes of finals. The table below lists the combinations of initial and final classes that occur in the Qieyun, with the row of the rime tables in which each combination was placed:[7][8]
| div. I | div. II | "division-III" finals | div. IV | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| indep. | mixed | chongniu | ||||||
| Labials | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | |
| Dental | stops | 1 | 4 | |||||
| Retroflex | 2 | 3 | 3 | |||||
| Lateral | 1 | 3 | 3 | 4 | ||||
| Dental | sibilants | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | |||
| Palatal | 3 | 3 | ||||||
| Retroflex | 2 | 2 | 2 | |||||
| Velars | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | |
| Laryngeals | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | |
The mixed and chongniu finals, though designated as division-III finals, are spread across rows 2 and 4 as well as row 3 of the tables. To handle these cases, a distinction is made between the row that the homophone class is placed in and the "division" of its final. This article distinguishes rows by Arabic numerals 1 2 3 4 and divisions by Roman numerals I II III IV. In addition, chóngniǔ finals in division III are notated in the table of final outcomes below as III/3 or III/4, depending on the row in which they occur.
Significance of the division
editThere are correspondences between certain divisions and the presence or absence of medial glides in later dialects, in ways that differ depending on the class of the initial (e.g. velar, labial, retroflex, etc.). There are also clear co-occurrence restrictions between initials and divisions, in that initials from certain of these same classes can occur with finals only from certain divisions. The LMC authors of this system appear to have been aware of these classes of initials, and seem to have determined the separation into divisions partly on the basis of the co-occurrence relationships and partly on the medial glides, although it is debated how the exact classification was made. It is important to remember that the authors of this system were attempting to use LMC phonology to reconstruct EMC phonology (although they probably thought of it more in terms of trying to harmonize the way that words were normally pronounced with the rather different system of rhymes and homophones as laid out in the Qieyun).
The clearest difference is between division III and other divisions, with division III generally corresponding to palatal initials and/or finals with palatal (i.e. high-front) vowels or glides. In addition, divisions I and IV allow exactly the same set of initials in EMC, suggesting that the distinction between the two postdates the EMC period. Division-IV syllables are commonly thought to reflect a diphthong containing a vocalic glide /i/ in LMC, corresponding to an EMC mid-front monophthong, variously reconstructed as /ɛ/, /e/ or ɪ. Beyond this, there is no consensus.
Karlgren, and many authors following him, suggest that neither divisions I nor II had any medial other than /w/ or /u/, with division I corresponding to back vowels and division II to front vowels. Some authors have suggested that division II corresponded not so much to front vowels as to centralized vowels. Many authors have recently suggested that division-II syllables consistently had a medial /r/ in Old Chinese, although this appeared to have already disappeared by EMC, so it's unclear exactly how this would have been carried forward into LMC. (Some have suggested that the system of divisions dates back at least to the time of the Qieyun (c. 600 AD), and reflects a medial /ɣ/ present very early on in the EMC period.)
Table of Early Middle Chinese finals
editThe following table lists Early Middle Chinese (EMC) reconstructed "finals" (i.e. all of the syllable other than the initial consonant), according to different authors. It also lists the corresponding Late Middle Chinese (LMC) outcomes according to Pulleyblank, and the Standard Mandarin outcomes using Pinyin spelling. The table does not explicitly list finals ending in /p/, /t/ or /k/ (the so-called "entering tone" syllables), but these can easily be derived by substituting /p/ for /m/, /t/ for /n/, and /k/ for /ŋ/. Some columns are not strictly in IPA.
- Late Middle Chinese (LMC) outcomes
Codes for initial classes:
- G = guttural (velar or laryngeal, i.e. a back consonant)
- P = labial (includes labiodental)
- PG = labial or guttural (i.e. a grave consonant)
- A = acute consonant (anything not in PG)
- SR = EMC retroflex sibilant
- ST = alveolar sibilant
- M = /m/
- RXLʔ = EMC retroflex, EMC palatal sibilant, /l/ or /ʔ/
- Standard Mandarin outcomes
The modern outcomes are listed using the following codes:
- P = bilabial stops (p, b)
- PM = bilabials (p, b, m)
- F = labiovelars (f, w < /m-/)
- T = alveolar stops (t, d)
- S = alveolar sibilants (c, z, s)
- Š = retroflex sibilants (ch, zh, sh)
- ŠR = retroflex (ch, zh, sh, r)
- K = velars (k, g, h)
- Q = palatal sibilants (q, j, x); they occur in place of either velars or alveolar sibilants when i or ü follows
- G = gutturals (velars or no initial; in the latter case, stemming from MC ʔ- or ŋ-/ng- and sometimes written w- or y- in Pinyin)
- J = "jutturals" (same as gutturals but with palatal sibilants in place of velars; occurs before i or ü)
The outcomes are written either as individual outcomes in Pinyin, or combined outcomes in "pseudo-Pinyin" (when the outcome begins with a "-" or uppercase letter). "Pseudo-Pinyin" uses Pinyin conventions but without any of the abbreviations normally in use in Pinyin. Examples:
- "-uei" indicates the pronunciation /uei/, normally spelled -ui or wei
- "-üe" indicates the pronunciation /ye/, normally spelled -ue (after q-, j-, x-); -üe (after l-, n-); or yue
- "-i" indicates the pronunciation /i/ (usually [i], but [ɨ] after alveolar or retroflex sibilants); normally spelled -i or yi
When not indicated, the choice of whether a velar or palatal occurs is determined by the following vowel: palatals before -i or -ü, velars elsewhere.
Example: A listed outcome like -uo, Ge, PMo; also Ta, occ. wo means that the outcome is -e for a guttural (i.e. ge, ke, he, e); -o for a labial (i.e. po, bo, mo); -uo elsewhere; but for alveolar stops, -a also appears (i.e. either tuo, duo or ta, da), and wo occasionally appears instead of e as the outcome of MC ʔ- or ŋ- (the outcome of both is a "null initial", which is counted as a "guttural" in the modern outcomes).
These outcomes assume the normal correspondences between EMC initials and Standard Mandarin initials:
- EMC voiced stops and fricatives become unvoiced in Mandarin; stops in syllables with tone 1 become aspirated, otherwise unaspirated.
- EMC palatal sibilants and retroflex stops become Mandarin retroflex sibilants.
- EMC nasal changes: nr- becomes Mandarin n-; ny- becomes Mandarin r-, or sometimes the syllable er; ng- is dropped.
- EMC guttural /ʔ-/ is dropped, and h- is dropped in the sequence hj-.
- EMC velars and alveolar sibilants become Mandarin palatal sibilants before Early Mandarin -i- or -ü- (/y/).
- With certain finals, EMC labial stops become Mandarin f-, and EMC m- usually becomes Mandarin w-; this is indicated by F-. Lowercase f- appears in finals where EMC labial stops become Mandarin f-, but either there are no known examples of EMC m- with the same final, or EMC m- with that final becomes Mandarin m- rather than w-.
In a couple of situations where two different EMC initials have merged, the modern outcome is nonetheless different depending on the EMC initial:
- EMC retroflex and palatal sibilants merged in LMC, but sometimes the modern outcomes are different. For example, under -ip, the notation -i, Še < SR- means that EMC syip > shi but EMC srip > she.
- EMC ng- and ʔ- both disappear, but sometimes with different results. For example, -ai, ya < ʔ-, Qie means that the modern result is ya when the EMC syllable began with ʔ- but ai when the EMC syllable began with ng- /ŋ-/. On the other hand, -ao, ao < ʔ-, Jiao means that the modern result is ao when the EMC syllable began with ʔ- but yao when the EMC syllable began with ng- /ŋ-/ (since J- includes original velars); likewise for -uo, wo < ʔ-, Jüe, indicating wo vs. yue.
Zero coda
edit| Yunjing rhyme class | Qieyun rhyme class | division | rounding | Bernhard Karlgren | Li Rong | Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] | William H. Baxter | Abraham Y.S. Chan | Zhengzhang Shangfang | Standard Mandarin pronunciation | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EMC | LMC | Jinling | Luoyang | ||||||||||
| 果 (outer) | 歌 | I | open | ɑ | ɑ | a [ɑ] | a [ɑ], Pua [ɑ] | a | ɑ | ɐ | ɑ | -uo, Ge, PMo; also Ta, occ. wo | |
| 戈 | I | closed | uɑ | uɑ | wa [wɑ] | ua [uɑ] | wa | wɑ | wɐ | uɑ | -uo; also Ge | ||
| 戈 | III-mixed | open | i̯ɑ | iɑ | ɨa [ɨɑ] | ia [iɑ] | ja | ɑ | œ | ɨɑ | Qie | ||
| 戈 | III-mixed | closed | i̯wɑ | iuɑ | ua [uɑ] | ya [yɑ] | jwa | wɑ | wœ | ɨuɑ | Qüe | ||
| 假 (outer) | 麻 | II | open | a | a | aɨ (ɛɨ) | aː [ɑː], Gjaː [Gjɑː] | æ | æ | ɛ | ɣa | -a, Jia | |
| 麻 | II | closed | wa | ua | waɨ (wɛɨ) | waː [wɑː] | wæ | wæ | wɛ | ɣua | -ua | ||
| 麻 | III-mixed | open | i̯a | ia | ia [iɑ] | ia [iɑ] | jæ | jæ | jɛ | ia | Jie, ŠRe | ||
| 遇 (inner) | 模 | I | closed | uo | o | ɔ | uə̆ [uɔ] | u | u | ə | uo | -u | |
| 魚 | III-mixed | closed | i̯wo | iɔ | ɨə̆ | iə̆ [iɛ], SRəə̆ [SRɤ] (yə̆ [yɛ], SRuə̆ [SRuɔ]) | jo | œ | ø | ɨʌ | -ü, Fu, ŠRu | ||
| 虞 | III-mixed | closed | i̯u | io | uə̆ | yə̆ [yɛ], SRuə̆ [SRuɔ] | ju | ø | ø | ɨo | |||
Palatal glide coda
edit| Yunjing rhyme class | Qieyun rhyme class | division | rounding | Bernhard Karlgren | Li Rong | Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] | William H. Baxter | Abraham Y.S. Chan | Zhengzhang Shangfang | Standard Mandarin pronunciation | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EMC | LMC | Jinling | Luoyang | ||||||||||
| 蟹 (outer) | 咍 | I | open | ɑ̌i | ɒi | əj | aj | oj | əj | əj | ʌi | -ai, Pei | |
| 灰 | I | closed | uɑ̌i | uɒi | wəj | uaj | woj | ʏj | ʏj | uʌi | -uei, PMei, lei, nei | ||
| 泰 | I | open | ɑi | ɑi | aj | aj | ajH[b] | ɑj | ɐj | ɑi | -ai, Pei | ||
| 泰 | I | closed | wɑi | uɑi | waj | uaj | wajH[b] | wɑj | wɐj | uɑi | -uei | ||
| 皆 | II | open | ə̆i | ɛi | əɨj | aːj, Gjaːj | ɛj | ɑj | ɛj | ɣɛi | -ai, Qie; also Pei | ||
| 皆 | II | closed | wə̆i | uɛi | wəɨj | waːj | wɛj | wɑj | wɛj | ɣuɛi | Kuai | ||
| 佳 | II | open | ai | ɛ | aɨj | aːj, Gjaːj | ɛ (ɛɨ)[c] | ɛ | ɛj | ɣɛ | -ai, ya < ʔ-, Qie; also Pa | ||
| 佳 | II | closed | wai | uɛ | waɨj | waːj | wɛ (wɛɨ)[c] | wɛ | wɛj | ɣuɛ | -ua; also wai | ||
| 夬 | II | open | ai | ai | aɨj(s)[b] | aːj, Gjaːj | æjH[b] | æj | ɛj | ɣai | -ai, Qie | ||
| 夬 | II | closed | wai | uai | waɨj(s)[b] | waːj | wæjH[b] | wæj | wɛj | ɣuai | Kuai | ||
| 祭 | III/3 | open | i̯ɛi | iɛi | iaj | iaj | jejH[b] | ej | ej | ɣiᴇi | -i | ||
| 祭 | III/4 | open | jɛi | jiaj | PGjiaj | jiejH[b] | jej | jej | iᴇi | ||||
| 祭 | III/3 | closed | i̯wɛi | iuɛi | wiaj | yaj | jwejH[b] | wej | wej | ɣiuᴇi | -uei | ||
| 祭 | III/4 | closed | juɛi | jwiaj | PGjyaj | jwiejH[b] | wjej | wjej | iuᴇi | ||||
| 廢 | III-indep | open | i̯æi | iɐi | ɨaj | iaj | jojH[b] | øj | øj | ɨɐi | fei, yi | ||
| 廢 | III-indep | closed | i̯wæi | iuɐi | uaj | yaj | jwojH[b] | wøj | wøj | ʉɐi | Kuei | ||
| 齊 | IV | open | iei | ei | ɛj | PGjiaj, Aiaj | ej | ɐj | ɪj | ei | -i | ||
| 齊 | IV | closed | iwei | uei | wɛj | Gjyaj | wej | wɐj | wɪj | wei | Kuei | ||
| 止 (inner) | 支 | III/3 | open | iě | ie | iə̆ | i, SRṛ, STẓ | je | e | i | ɣiᴇ | -i, er < ny-; occ. Pei | |
| 支 | III/4 | open | je | jiə̆ | PGji | jie | je | ji | iᴇ | ||||
| 支 | III/3 | closed | wiě | iue | wiə̆ | yj, SRuj | jwe | we | wi | ɣiuᴇ | -uei, lei | ||
| 支 | III/4 | closed | jue | jwiə̆ | PGjyj | jwie | wje | wji | iuᴇ | ||||
| 脂 | III/3 | open | i | i | i | i, SRṛ, STẓ | ij | i | i | ɣiɪ | -i, er < ny-; occ. PMei | ||
| 脂 | III/4 | open | ji | ji | PGji | jij | ji | ji | iɪ | ||||
| 脂 | III/3 | closed | wi | ui | wi | yj, SRuj | wij | wi | wi | ɣiuɪ | -uei, lei, yi? | ||
| 脂 | III/4 | closed | jui | jwi | PGjyj | jwij | wji | wji | iuɪ | ||||
| 之 | III-mixed | open | i | iə | ɨ | i, SRṛ, STẓ | i | i | e | ɨ | -i, er < ny- | ||
| 微 | III-indep | open | ěi | iəi | ɨj | i | jɨj | yj | yj | ɨi | Ji, Fei | ||
| 微 | III-indep | closed | wěi | iuəi | uj | yj | jwɨj | wyj | wyj | ʉi | Guei | ||
Labial-velar glide coda
edit| Yunjing rhyme class | Qieyun rhyme class | division | rounding | Bernhard Karlgren | Li Rong | Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] | William H. Baxter | Abraham Y.S. Chan | Zhengzhang Shangfang | Standard Mandarin pronunciation | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EMC | LMC | Jinling | Luoyang | ||||||||||
| 效 (outer) | 豪 | I | open | ɑu | ɑu | aw | (u)aw | aw | ɑw | ɐw | ɑu | -ao | |
| 肴 | II | open | au | au | aɨw | aːw, Gjaːw | æw | ɛw | ɛw | ɣau | -ao, ao < ʔ-, Jiao | ||
| 宵 | III/3 | open | i̯ɛu | iɛu | iaw | iaw | jew | ew | ew | ɣiᴇu | -iao, ŠRao | ||
| 宵 | III/4 | open | jɛu | jiaw | PGjiaw | jiew | jew | jew | iᴇu | ||||
| 蕭 | IV | open | ieu | eu | ɛw | PGjiaw, Aiaw | ew | ɪw | ɪw | eu | |||
| 流 (inner) | 侯 | I | open | ə̆u | u | əw | əw | uw | ʉ | u | əu | -ou; also mu | |
| 尤 | III-mixed | open | iə̆u | iu | uw | iw, SRəw, Məw | juw | y | y | ɨu | -iou, fou, mou, ŠRou; also Sou < Š- | ||
| 幽 | III/4 | open | i̯ĕu | iĕu | jiw | jiw | jiw | iw | iw | iɪu | -iou | ||
Labial codas
edit| Yunjing rhyme class | Qieyun rhyme class | division | rounding | Bernhard Karlgren | Li Rong | Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] | William H. Baxter | Abraham Y.S. Chan | Zhengzhang Shangfang | Standard Mandarin pronunciation | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EMC | LMC | Jinling | Luoyang | -m | -p | ||||||||
| 咸 (outer) | 覃 | I | open | ɑ̌m | ɒm | əm | am | om | ɔm | ɔm | ʌm | -an | -a, Ke |
| 談 | I | open | ɑm | ɑm | am | am | am | ɑm | ɐm | ɑm | |||
| 咸 | II | open | ə̆m | ɐm | əɨm | aːm, Gjaːm | ɛm | ɛm | ɛm | ɣɛm | -an, Jian | Jia, Ša | |
| 銜 | II | open | am | am | aɨm | aːm, Gjaːm | æm | æm | ɛm | ɣam | |||
| 鹽 | III/3 | open | i̯ɛm | iɛm | iam | iam | jem | em | em | ɣiᴇm | -ian, ŠRan | -ie, Še | |
| 鹽 | III/4 | open | jɛm | jiam | PGjiam | jiem | jem | jem | iᴇm | ||||
| 嚴 | III-indep | open | i̯æm | iɐm | ɨam | iam | jæm | øm | øm | ɨɐm | -ian, fan | -ie, fa | |
| 凡 | III-indep | closed | i̯wæm | iuɐm | uam | iam | jom/jwom? | œm | øm | ʉɐm | |||
| 添 | IV | open | iem | em | ɛm | PGjiam, Aiam | em | ɪm | ɪm | em | -ian | Qie | |
| 深 (inner) | 侵 | III/3 | open | i̯əm | iəm | im | im, SRəm | im | im | im | ɣiɪm | -in, ŠRen; also Sen < Š- | -i, Še < SR- |
| 侵 | III/4 | open | jəm | jim | PGjim | jim | jim | jim | iɪm | ||||
Dental codas
edit| Yunjing rhyme class | Qieyun rhyme class | division | rounding | Bernhard Karlgren | Li Rong | Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] | William H. Baxter | Abraham Y.S. Chan | Zhengzhang Shangfang | Standard Mandarin pronunciation | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EMC | LMC | Jinling | Luoyang | -n | -t | ||||||||
| 山 (outer) | 寒 | I | open | ɑn | ɑn | an | an | an | ɑn | ɐn | ɑn | -an | -a, Ge, PMo |
| 桓 | I | closed | uɑn | uɑn | wan | uan | wan | wɑn | wɐn | uɑn | -uan, PMan | -uo, PMo | |
| 刪 | II | open | an | an | aɨn | aːn, Gjaːn | æn | æn | ɛn | ɣan | -an, Jian | -a, Jia | |
| 刪 | II | closed | wan | uan | waɨn | waːn | wæn | wæn | wɛn | ɣuan | -uan | Kua | |
| 山 | II | open | ə̆n | ɛn | əɨn | aːn, Gjaːn | ɛn | ɛn | ɛn | ɣɛn | -an, Jian | -a, Jia | |
| 山 | II | closed | wə̆n | uɛn | wəɨn | waːn | wɛn | wɛn | wɛn | ɣuɛn | Kuan | Gua | |
| 仙 | III/3 | open | i̯ɛn | iɛn | ian | ian | jen | en | en | ɣiᴇn | -ian, ŠRan | -ie, ŠRe | |
| 仙 | III/4 | open | jɛn | jian | PGjian | jien | jen | jen | iᴇn | ||||
| 仙 | III/3 | closed | i̯wɛn | iuɛn | wian | yan | jwen | wen | wen | ɣiuᴇn | -uan, Jüan; also lian | Jüe, lie, Šuo | |
| 仙 | III/4 | closed | juɛn | jwian | PGjyan | jwien | wjen | wjen | iuᴇn | ||||
| 元 | III-indep | open | i̯æn | iɐn | ɨan | ian | jon | øn | øn | ɨɐn | Jian, Fan | Jie, fa | |
| 元 | III-indep | closed | i̯wæn | iuɐn | uan | yan | jwon | wøn | wøn | ʉɐn | Jüan, Fan | Jüe | |
| 先 | IV | open | ien | en | ɛn | PGjian, Aian | en | ɪn | ɪn | en | -ian | -ie | |
| 先 | IV | closed | iwen | uen | wɛn | jyan | wen | wɪn | wɪn | wen | Jüan | Qüe | |
| 臻 (inner) | 痕 | I | open | ən | ən | ən | ən | on | ən | ən | ən | Gen | Ke |
| 魂 | I | closed | u̯ən | uən | wən | un | won | ʏn | ʏn | uən | -uen, PMen | -u, PMo, ne | |
| 臻 | III/3 | open | i̯ɛn | iɛn | in | SRən | in | in | in | ɪn | -in, ŠRen; also Sen < Š- | -i, Še < SR- | |
| 眞 | III/3 | open | i̯ēn | iēn | in | in, SRən | in | in | in | ɣiɪn | |||
| 眞 | III/4 | open | jēn | jin | PGjin | jin | jin | jin | iɪn | ||||
| 眞 | III/3 | closed | i̯wēn | iuēn | win | yn | win | win | win | ɣiuɪn | -uen, Jün | -ü | |
| 諄 | III/3 | closed | i̯uēn | iuēn | win | yn | win | win | win | ɣiuɪn | |||
| 諄 | III/4 | closed | juēn | jwin | PGjyn | jwin | jwin | jwin | iuɪn | ||||
| 欣(殷?) | III-indep | open | i̯ən | iən | ɨn | in | jɨn | in | yn | ɨn | Jin | Ji | |
| 文 | III-indep | closed | i̯uən | iuən | un | yn, yt, SRut | jun | yn | yn | ɨun | Jün, Fen | Jü, Fu | |
Velar codas
edit| Yunjing rhyme class | Qieyun rhyme class | division | rounding | Bernhard Karlgren | Li Rong | Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] | William H. Baxter | Abraham Y.S. Chan | Zhengzhang Shangfang | Standard Mandarin pronunciation | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| EMC | LMC | Jinling | Luoyang | -ŋ | -k | ||||||||
| 宕 (outer) | 唐 | I | open | ɑŋ | ɑŋ | aŋ [ɑŋ] | aŋ [ɑŋ] | aŋ | ɑŋ | ɐŋ | ɑŋ | -ang | -uo, Ge, PMo; also lao; occ. Sao |
| 唐 | I | closed | wɑŋ | uɑŋ | waŋ [wɑŋ] | uaŋ [uɑŋ] | waŋ | wɑŋ | wɐŋ | wɑŋ | Kuang | Kuo | |
| 陽 | III-mixed | open | i̯aŋ | iaŋ | ɨaŋ [ɨɑŋ] | iaŋ [iɑŋ], SRaːŋ [SRɑːŋ] | jaŋ | œŋ | œŋ | ɨɐŋ | -iang, Fang, ŠRang; also Šuang < SR- | -üe, ŠRuo; also Jiao | |
| 陽 | III-mixed | closed | i̯waŋ | iuaŋ | uaŋ [uɑŋ] | yaŋ [yɑŋ] | jwaŋ | wœŋ | wœŋ | ʉɐŋ | Kuang | Qüe | |
| 江 (outer) | 江 | II | open | ɔŋ | ɔŋ | aɨwŋ | aːwŋ, RXLʔwaːwŋ, Gjaːwŋ | æwŋ | ɔŋ | ɔŋ | ɣʌŋ | Qiang, Pang, Šuang < TR- | -uo, wo < ʔ-, Jüe, Pao; also Qiao, Po |
| 曾 (inner) | 登 | I | open | əŋ | əŋ | əŋ | əə̆ŋ [ɤŋ] | oŋ | oŋ | oŋ | əŋ | -eng | -e, PMo; also Sei, lei |
| 登 | I | closed | wəŋ | uəŋ | wəŋ | uə̆ŋ [uɔŋ] | woŋ | woŋ | woŋ | wəŋ | Kong | Kuo | |
| 蒸 | III-mixed | open | i̯əŋ | iəŋ | iŋ | iə̆ŋ [iɛŋ], iə̆k [iɛk], SRəə̆k [SRɤk] | iŋ | iŋ | iŋ | ɨŋ | -ing, ŠReng | -i, Še < SR-; also Se < SR- | |
| 蒸 | III-mixed | closed | i̯wəŋ | iuəŋ | wiŋ | yə̆ŋ [yɛŋ] | wiŋ | wiŋ | wiŋ | wɨŋ | unobserved | Jü | |
| 梗 (outer) | 庚 | II | open | æŋ | ɐŋ | aɨjŋ | aːjŋ, Gjaːjŋ | æŋ | æŋ | ɛŋ | ɣæŋ | Jing, -eng; also Keng | -ai, Ge; also PMo, Se < Š- |
| 庚 | II | closed | wæŋ | uɐŋ | waɨjŋ | waːjŋ | wæŋ | wæŋ | wɛŋ | wɣæŋ | Keng | unobserved | |
| 耕 | II | open | ɛŋ | ɛŋ | əɨjŋ | aːjŋ, Gjaːjŋ | ɛŋ | ɛŋ | ɛŋ | ɣɛŋ | Jing, -eng; also Keng | -ai, Ge; also Se < Š- | |
| 耕 | II | closed | wɛŋ | uɛŋ | wəɨjŋ | waːjŋ | wɛŋ | wɛŋ | wɛŋ | wɣɛŋ | Kong | Kuo | |
| 庚 | III/3 | open | i̯æŋ | iɐŋ | iajŋ | iajŋ | jæŋ | eŋ | jɛŋ | ɣiæŋ | -ing, Šeng | -i | |
| 庚 | III/3 | closed | i̯wæŋ | iuɐŋ | wiajŋ | yajŋ | jwæŋ | weŋ | wjɛŋ | wɣiæŋ | Qiong | unobserved | |
| 清 | III/3 | open | i̯ɛŋ | iɛŋ | iajŋ | iajŋ | jeŋ | eŋ | eŋ | iᴇŋ | -ing, Šeng | -i | |
| 清 | III/4 | open | jɛŋ | jiajŋ | PGjiajŋ | jieŋ | jeŋ | jeŋ | iᴇŋ | ||||
| 清 | III/3 | closed | i̯wɛŋ | iuɛŋ | wiajŋ | yajŋ | jweŋ | weŋ | weŋ | wiᴇŋ | Qiong, ying | yi | |
| 清 | III/4 | closed | juɛŋ | jwiajŋ | jyajŋ | jwieŋ | wjeŋ | wjeŋ | wiᴇŋ | ||||
| 青 | IV | open | ieŋ | eŋ | ɛjŋ | PGjiajŋ, Aiajŋ | eŋ | ɪŋ | ɪŋ | eŋ | -ing | -i | |
| 青 | IV | closed | iweŋ | ueŋ | Kwɛjŋ | jyajŋ | weŋ | wɪŋ | wɪŋ | weŋ | Qiong | unobserved | |
| 通 (inner) | 東 | I | closed | uŋ | uŋ | əwŋ | əwŋ | uwŋ | ʉŋ | ʉŋ | uŋ | -ong, weng, PMeng; occ. Seng | -u; also wo |
| 冬 | I | closed | uoŋ | oŋ | awŋ | əwŋ | owŋ | uŋ | əŋ | uoŋ | |||
| 東 | III-mixed | closed | iuŋ | iuŋ | uwŋ | iwŋ, SRəwŋ, Məwŋ | juwŋ | yŋ | yŋ | ɨuŋ | -ong, Jiong, feng; also Kong | -u, Jü; also liu, ŠRou | |
| 鍾 | III-mixed | closed | i̯woŋ | ioŋ | uawŋ | ywŋ | jowŋ | øŋ | øŋ | ɨoŋ | |||
Notes
edit- ^ a b c d e f The table uses the notation in Pulleyblank (1991), which differs in some ways from Pulleyblank (1984).
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l These finals occur only in tone 3 (the "departing tone"). This is because they come from Old Chinese finals in -ts > -js, while the corresponding Old Chinese finals in -j lost the /j/. As a result, they often appear in Pulleyblank (1962) as e.g. aɨj(s) and in Baxter (1992) as e.g. æjH, where the s and H are the respective notations for tone 3.
- ^ a b In Baxter (1992), these finals are indicated as ɛɨ and wɛɨ, but in Baxter & Sagart (2010), they have changed to simply ɛ and wɛ.
References
edit- Footnotes
- ^ Norman (1988), pp. 36–38.
- ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 62–63.
- ^ Schuessler (2009), pp. 8–9.
- ^ Pan & Zhang (2015), pp. 86–87.
- ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 75–79.
- ^ Branner (2006), p. 24.
- ^ Branner (2006), p. 25.
- ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 63–81.
- Works cited
- Baxter, William H. (1992), A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-012324-1.
- ——; Sagart, Laurent (20 February 2010), Baxter-Sagart Old Chinese reconstruction, Version 1.00.
- Branner, David Prager (2006), "What are rime tables and what do they mean?", in Branner, David Prager (ed.), The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 1–34, ISBN 978-90-272-4785-8. See also List of Corrigenda.
- Chan, Abraham (2004), "Early Middle Chinese Towards a New Paradigm", T'oung Pao, 90 (1/3): 122–162, doi:10.1163/1568532042523149, JSTOR 4528958.
- Karlgren, Bernhard (1957), Grammata Serica Recensa, Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, OCLC 1999753.
- Li, Fang-Kuei (1974–1975), "Studies on Archaic Chinese", Monumenta Serica, 31, Gilbert L. Mattos (trans.): 219–287.
- Newman, J.; Raman, A. V. (1999), Chinese historical phonology: a compendium of Beijing and Cantonese pronunciations of characters and their derivations from Middle Chinese, LINCOM studies in Asian linguistics, vol. 27, Munich: LINCOM Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-543-5.
- Norman, Jerry (1988), Chinese, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3.
- Pan, Wuyun; Zhang, Hongming (2015), "Chapter 6: Middle Chinese Phonology and Qieyun", in Wang, William S-Y; Sun, Chaofen (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-1998-5633-6.
- Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1962), "The Consonantal System of Old Chinese", Asia Major, 9: 58–144, 206–265.
- —— (1970), "Late Middle Chinese, Part I" (PDF), Asia Major, 15: 197–239.
- —— (1971), "Late Middle Chinese, Part II" (PDF), Asia Major, 16: 121–166.
- —— (1984), Middle Chinese: a study in historical phonology, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, ISBN 978-0-7748-0192-8.
- —— (1991), Lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in early Middle Chinese, late Middle Chinese, and early Mandarin, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, ISBN 978-0-7748-0366-3.
- Schuessler, Axel (2009), Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese: A Companion to Grammata Serica Recensa, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-3264-3.
External links
edit- Introduction to Chinese Historical Phonology, Guillaume Jacques
- Historical Chinese Phonology/Philology at Technical Notes on the Chinese Language Dialects Dylan W.H. Sung