Russia is one of the world's largest producers of nuclear energy. In 2020 total electricity generated in nuclear power plants in Russia was 215.746 TWh, 20.28% of all power generation.[1] The installed gross capacity of Russian nuclear reactors is 29.4 GW in December 2020.
Recent history
editIn accord with legislation passed in 2001, all Russian civil reactors are operated by Energoatom. More recently in 2007 Russian Parliament adopted the law "On the peculiarities of the management and disposition of the property and shares of organizations using nuclear energy and on relevant changes to some legislative acts of the Russian Federation", which created Atomenergoprom - a holding company for all Russian civil nuclear industry, including Energoatom, nuclear fuel producer and supplier TVEL, uranium trader Tekhsnabexport (Tenex) and nuclear facilities constructor Atomstroyexport.
| Operating reactors, building new reactors |
The overnight cost of construction in the seventies was a low 800 $/kW in 2016 dollars.[2] In 2019 a S&P Global Ratings report stated Russia's nuclear construction costs were well below European levels because of vertical integration, good learning-curve effects from serial production, and the large currency devaluation of 2014.[3]
The Russian nuclear industry employs around 200,000 people.[4] Russia is recognized for its nuclear disaster expertise and for the safety of its technology. Statements made in review of Russian reactor safety [8] that "Requirements on placing the nuclear installation should not contain additional restrictions in comparison with other industrial facilities," suggest that nuclear plants could be placed within cities and are not considered to pose exceptional dangers. [5][6][7][8] Russia is also pursuing an ambitious plan to increase sales of Russian-built reactors overseas,[9] and had 39 reactors under construction or planned overseas as of 2018.[10]
The VVER-1200 pressurised water reactor is the system currently offered for construction, being an evolution of the VVER-1000 with increased power output to about 1200 MWe (gross) and providing additional passive safety features.[11] In August 2016 the first VVER-1200, Novovoronezh II-1, was connected to the grid.[12]
Through its membership in the multi-nation ITER project, Russia participates in the design of nuclear fusion reactors.
In 2013 the Russian state allocated 80.6 billion rubles ($2.4 billion) toward the growth of its nuclear industry, especially export projects where Russian companies build, own and operate the power station, such as the Akkuyu Nuclear Power Plant.[13]
In 2016 initial plans were announced to build 11 new nuclear power reactors by 2030, including the first VVER-600, a smaller two cooling circuit version of the VVER-1200, designed for smaller regions and markets.[14] Outline plans for near-surface disposal facilities for low and intermediate-level waste, and deep burial disposal facilities for high-level waste were also approved in the Krasnoyarsk Krai region.[14]
In October 2017 Rosatom was reported to be considering postponing commissioning new nuclear plants in Russia due to excess generation capacity and that new nuclear electricity prices are higher than for existing plant. The Russian government is considering reducing support for new nuclear under its support contracts, called Dogovor Postavki Moshnosti (DPM), which guarantee developers a return on investment through increased payments from consumers for 20 years.[15] In 2019 a S&P Global Ratings report stated that "We expect domestic nuclear capacity to increase only moderately because electricity demand in Russia is stagnating, given only modest GDP growth, a significant potential for energy savings, and the government's intention to avoid raising electricity prices through additional increases in capacity payments".[3]
Russia's first-floating nuclear power plant, Akademik Lomonosov, is equipped to provide power to a remote Russian town on the Bering Strait. The nuclear unit features small modular reactors (SMRs) technology.[16]
Nuclear power reactors
editReactors in operation
edit
Active plants
Closed plants
Unfinished plants
Plants under constructionEleven of Russia's reactors are of the RBMK 1000 type, similar to the one at Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Some of these RBMK reactors were originally to be shut down but have instead been given life extensions and uprated in output by about 5%. Critics say that these reactors are of an "inherently unsafe design", which cannot be improved through upgrades and modernization, and some reactor parts are impossible to replace. Russian environmental groups say that the lifetime extensions "violate Russian law, because the projects have not undergone environmental assessments".[17]
| Plant name |
Unit No. |
Type | Model | Status | Capacity (MW) |
Begin building |
Commercial operation |
Closed |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Akademik Lomonosov | 1 | PWR | KLT-40S | Operational | 32 | 15 Apr 2007 | 19 Dec 2019[18] | |
| 2 | PWR | KLT-40S | Operational | 32 | 15 Apr 2007 | 19 Dec 2019 | ||
| Balakovo | 1 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-320 | Operational | 950 | 1 Dec 1980 | 23 May 1986 | |
| 2 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-320 | Operational | 950 | 1 Aug 1981 | 18 Jan 1988 | ||
| 3 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-320 | Operational | 950 | 1 Nov 1982 | 8 Apr 1989 | ||
| 4 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-320 | Operational | 950 | 1 Apr 1984 | 22 Dec 1993 | ||
| Beloyarsk | 1 | LWGR | AMB-100 | Shut down | 102 | 1 Jun 1958 | 26 Apr 1964 | 1 Jan 1983 |
| 2 | LWGR | AMB-200 | Shut down | 146 | 1 Jan 1962 | 1 Dec 1969 | 1 Jan 1990 | |
| 3 | SFR | BN-600 | Operational | 560 | 1 Jan 1969 | 1 Nov 1981 | ||
| 4 | SFR | BN-800 | Operational | 789 | 18 Jul 2006 | 10 Dec 2015 | ||
| 5 | SFR | BN-1200 | Planned | 1100 | ||||
| Bilibino | 1 | LWGR | EGP-6 | Shut down | 11 | 1 Jan 1970 | 1 Apr 1974 | 14 Jan 2019 |
| 2 | LWGR | EGP-6 | Operational | 11 | 1 Jan 1970 | 1 Feb 1975 | ||
| 3 | LWGR | EGP-6 | Operational | 11 | 1 Jan 1970 | 1 Feb 1976 | ||
| 4 | LWGR | EGP-6 | Operational | 11 | 1 Jan 1970 | 1 Jan 1977 | ||
| Kalinin | 1 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-338 | Operational | 950 | 1 Feb 1977 | 12 Jun 1985 | |
| 2 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-338 | Operational | 950 | 1 Feb 1982 | 3 Mar 1987 | ||
| 3 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-320 | Operational | 950 | 1 Oct 1985 | 8 Nov 2005 | ||
| 4 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-320 | Operational | 950 | 1 Aug 1986 | 25 Dec 2012 | ||
| Kaliningrad | 1 | PWR | VVER-1200/V-491 | Under construction (suspended)[19] |
1109 | 22 Feb 2012 | ||
| 2 | PWR | VVER-1200/V-491 | Planned | 1109 | ||||
| Kola | 1 | PWR | VVER-440/V-230 | Operational | 441 | 1 May 1970 | 28 Dec 1973 | |
| 2 | PWR | VVER-440/V-230 | Operational | 441 | 1 May 1970 | 21 Feb 1975 | ||
| 3 | PWR | VVER-440/V-213 | Operational | 441 | 1 Apr 1977 | 3 Dec 1982 | ||
| 4 | PWR | VVER-440/V-213 | Operational | 441 | 1 Aug 1976 | 6 Dec 1984 | ||
| Kola II[19][20] | 1 | PWR | VVER-S-600 | Planned | 600 | (2028) | (2034) | |
| 2 | PWR | VVER-S-600 | Planned | 600 | (2028) | (2034) | ||
| Kostroma | 1 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Unfinished; restart planned | 1300 | 1979 | ||
| 2 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Unfinished; restart planned | 1300 | 1979 | |||
| 3 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Unfinished; restart planned | 1300 | 1979 | |||
| 4 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Unfinished; restart planned | 1300 | 1979 | |||
| Kursk | 1 | LWGR | RBMK-1000 | Shut down | 925 | 1 Jun 1972 | 12 Oct 1977 | 19 Dec 2021 |
| 2 | LWGR | RBMK-1000 | Shut down | 925 | 1 Jan 1973 | 17 Aug 1979 | 31 Jan 2024[21] | |
| 3 | LWGR | RBMK-1000 | Operational | 925 | 1 Apr 1978 | 30 Mar 1984 | ||
| 4 | LWGR | RBMK-1000 | Operational | 925 | 1 May 1981 | 5 Feb 1986 | ||
| 5 | LWGR | RBMK-1000 | Unfinished | 925 | 1985 | |||
| 6 | LWGR | RBMK-1000 | Unfinished | 925 | 1985 | |||
| Kursk II | 1 | PWR | VVER-TOI/V-510 | Under construction | 1115 | 29 Apr 2018 | (2025)[22] | |
| 2 | PWR | VVER-TOI/V-510 | Under construction | 1115 | 15 Apr 2019[23] | (2026) | ||
| 3 | PWR | VVER-TOI | Planned | 1115 | ||||
| 4 | PWR | VVER-TOI | Planned | 1115 | ||||
| Leningrad | 1 | LWGR | RBMK-1000 | Shut down | 925 | 1 Mar 1970 | 1 Nov 1974 | 21 Dec 2018[24] |
| 2 | LWGR | RBMK-1000 | Shut down | 925 | 1 Jun 1970 | 11 Feb 1976 | 10 Nov 2020 | |
| 3 | LWGR | RBMK-1000 | Operational | 925 | 1 Dec 1973 | 29 Jun 1980 | ||
| 4 | LWGR | RBMK-1000 | Operational | 925 | 1 Feb 1975 | 29 Aug 1981 | ||
| Leningrad II[25] | 1 | PWR | VVER-1200/V-491 | Operational | 1085 | 25 Oct 2008 | 29 Oct 2018 | |
| 2 | PWR | VVER-1200/V-491 | Operational | 1085 | 15 Apr 2010 | 22 Mar 2021 | ||
| 3 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Under construction | 1085 | 14 Mar 2024[26] | (2030) | ||
| 4 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Planned | 1085 | (2025) | (2032) | ||
| MPEB No. 1[27][28][29] | 1 | PWR | RITM-200S | Under construction | 53 | 30 Aug 2022[30] | (2027) | |
| 2 | PWR | RITM-200S | Under construction | 53 | 30 Aug 2022[30] | (2027) | ||
| MPEB No. 2 | 1 | PWR | RITM-200S | Planned | 53 | (2022) | (2027) | |
| 2 | PWR | RITM-200S | Planned | 53 | (2022) | (2027) | ||
| MPEB No. 3 | 1 | PWR | RITM-200S | Planned | 53 | (2022) | (2028) | |
| 2 | PWR | RITM-200S | Planned | 53 | (2022) | (2028) | ||
| MPEB No. 4 | 1 | PWR | RITM-200S | Planned | 53 | (2022) | (2031) | |
| 2 | PWR | RITM-200S | Planned | 53 | (2022) | (2031) | ||
| Nizhny Novgorod | 1 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Planned | 1300 | |||
| 2 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Planned | 1300 | ||||
| 3 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Planned | 1300 | ||||
| 4 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Planned | 1300 | ||||
| Novovoronezh | 1 | PWR | VVER/V-210 | Shut down | 197 | 1 Jul 1957 | 31 Dec 1964 | 16 Feb 1988 |
| 2 | PWR | VVER/V-365 | Shut down | 336 | 1 Jun 1964 | 14 Apr 1970 | 29 Aug 1990 | |
| 3 | PWR | VVER-440/V-179 | Shut down | 385 | 1 Jul 1967 | 29 Jun 1972 | 25 Dec 2016 | |
| 4 | PWR | VVER 440/V-179 | Operational | 385 | 1 Jul 1967 | 24 Mar 1973 | ||
| 5 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-187 | Operational | 950 | 1 Mar 1974 | 20 Feb 1981 | ||
| Novovoronezh II | 1 | PWR | VVER-1200/V-392M | Operational | 1114 | 24 Jun 2008 | 27 Feb 2017 | |
| 2 | PWR | VVER-1200/V-392M | Operational | 1114 | 12 Jul 2009 | 6 Nov 2019 | ||
| 3 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Planned | 1175 | ||||
| 4 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Planned | 1175 | ||||
| Obninsk | 1 | LWGR | AM-1 | Shut down | 5 | 1 Jan 1951 | 1 Dec 1954 | 29 Apr 2002 |
| Rostov | 1 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-320 | Operational | 950 | 1 Sep 1981 | 25 Dec 2001 | |
| 2 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-320 | Operational | 950 | 1 May 1983 | 10 Dec 2010 | ||
| 3 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-320 | Operational | 950 | 15 Sep 2009 | 27 Dec 2014 | ||
| 4 | PWR | VVER-1000/V-320 | Operational | 1011 | 16 Jun 2010 | 28 Sep 2018 | ||
| Sakha | 1 | PWR | RITM-200N | Planned | 55 | (2024)[31] | (2028) | |
| Seversk | 1 | FBR | BREST-300 | Under construction | 280 | 8 Jun 2021[32] | (2026) | |
| South Urals | 1 | FBR | BN-1200 | Unfinished; restart planned | 1100 | 1982 | ||
| 2 | FBR | BN-1200 | Unfinished; restart planned | 1100 | 1982 | |||
| 3 | FBR | BN-1200 | Unfinished; restart planned | 1100 | 1982 | |||
| Smolensk | 1 | LWGR | RBMK-1000 | Operational | 925 | 1 Oct 1975 | 30 Sep 1983 | |
| 2 | LWGR | RBMK-1000 | Operational | 925 | 1 Jun 1976 | 2 Jul 1985 | ||
| 3 | LWGR | RBMK-1000 | Operational | 925 | 1 May 1984 | 12 Oct 1990 | ||
| Smolensk II[33][34] | 1 | PWR | VVER-TOI | Planned | 1300 | |||
| 2 | PWR | VVER-TOI | Planned | 1300 | ||||
| Tatar | 1 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Unfinished; restart planned | 1300 | 1980 | ||
| 2 | PWR | VVER-1200 | Unfinished; restart planned | 1300 | 1980 |
International projects
edit| Country | NPP Reactor | Type | MWe net | MWe gross | Construction start | Commercially operational |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bangladesh | Ruppur-1 | VVER-1200/523 | 1080 | 1200 | 2017-11-30 | 2024 |
| Ruppur-2 | VVER-1200/523 | 1080 | 1200 | 2018-07-14 | 2025 | |
| Belarus | Belarusian-1 | VVER-1200/491 | 1110 | 1194 | 2013-11-08 | 2021-06-10 |
| Belarusian-2 | VVER-1200/491 | 1110 | 1194 | 2014-06-03 | 2023 | |
| China | Tianwan-1 | VVER-1000/428 | 990 | 1060 | 1999-10-20 | 2007-05-17 |
| Tianwan-2 | VVER-1000/428 | 990 | 1060 | 2000-10-20 | 2007-08-16 | |
| Tianwan-3 | VVER-1000/428М | 1060 | 1126 | 2012-12-27 | 2018-02-14 | |
| Tianwan-4 | VVER-1000/428М | 1060 | 1126 | 2013-09-27 | 2018-12-22 | |
| Tianwan-7 | VVER-1200/491 | 1100 | 1200 | 2021-05-19 | 2026 | |
| Tianwan-8 | VVER-1200/491 | 1100 | 1200 | 2022-02-25 | 2027 | |
| Xudabao-3 | VVER-1200/491 | 1100 | 1200 | 2021-07-28 | 2026 | |
| Xudabao-4 | VVER-1200/491 | 1100 | 1200 | 2022-05-19 | 2027 | |
| Egypt | El Dabaa-1 | VVER-1200/529 | 1100 | 1200 | 2022-07-20 | |
| El Dabaa-2 | VVER-1200/529 | 1100 | 1200 | 2022-11-19 | ||
| El Dabaa-3 | VVER-1200/529 | 1100 | 1200 | 2023-05-03 | ||
| El Dabaa-4 | VVER-1200/529 | 1100 | 1200 | 2024-01-23 | ||
| Finland | Hanhikivi-1 | VVER-1200/AES-2006 | 1200 | cancelled | cancelled | |
| India | Kudankulam-1 | VVER-1000/412 | 932 | 1000 | 2002-03-31 | 2014-12-31 |
| Kudankulam-2 | VVER-1000/412 | 932 | 1000 | 2002-07-04 | 2017-03-31 | |
| Kudankulam-3 | VVER-1000/412 | 917 | 1000 | 2017-06-29 | 2025 | |
| Kudankulam-4 | VVER-1000/412 | 917 | 1000 | 2017-10-23 | 2025 | |
| Kudankulam-5 | VVER-1000/412 | 917 | 1000 | 2021-06-29 | 2027 | |
| Kudankulam-6 | VVER-1000/412 | 917 | 1000 | 2021-12-20 | 2027 | |
| Iran | Bushehr-1 | VVER-1000/446 | 915 | 1000 | 1975-05-01 (1995) | 2013-09-23 |
| Bushehr-2 | VVER-1000/446 | 915 | 1000 | 2016-09-10 | 2025 | |
| Bushehr-3 | VVER-1000/446 | 915 | 1000 | 2016-09-10 | 2027 | |
| Turkey | Akkuyu-1 | VVER-1200/509 | 1114 | 1200 | 2018-04-03 | 2023 |
| Akkuyu-2 | VVER-1200/509 | 1114 | 1200 | 2020-04-08 | 2024 | |
| Akkuyu-3 | VVER-1200/509 | 1114 | 1200 | 2021-03-10 | 2025 | |
| Akkuyu-4 | VVER-1200/509 | 1114 | 1200 | 2022-07-21 | 2026 | |
| Ukraine | Khmelnytskyi-3/4 | VVER-1000/392B | 950 | 1000 | cancelled | cancelled |
| Vietnam | Ninh Thuan 1-1/2 | VVER-1000/428 | 950 | 1000 | cancelled | cancelled |
| Ninh Thuan 1-3/4 | VVER-1000/428 | 950 | 1000 | cancelled | cancelled |
In addition Atomstroyexport challenging NPP projects list contains:[35]
- Temelin NPP Power Units 3/4 (Czech Republic)
- Jordan NPP (single-unit NPP with an option for the second power unit)[36]
- Metsamor NPP Power Units 3/4 (Armenia)
- NPP with the Reactor Plant VBER-300 (Kazakhstan)
- Sanming NPP (China)
In March 2022, Russian captured the Zaporizhzhia Nuclear Power Plant, now operated by Rosatom.
In August 2022, the Hungarian Nuclear Energy Authority authorized Rosatom to expand the nuclear power plant at Paks with two new VVER reactors with capacity of 1.2 gigawatts each.[37]
Nuclear engineering companies
edit- Atomenergomash: power engineering company; produces steam generators for NPPs
- Atommash: by far Russia's largest nuclear engineering company designed to build up to 8 reactors per year.
- Atomstroyexport: nuclear power equipment and service export monopoly
- OKBM Afrikantov: nuclear reactor design and engineering company. The world's leading company in production of fast breeder reactors.
- OKB Gidropress: nuclear reactor design and engineering company
Safety
editRussia, responding to the 2011 Japanese nuclear accidents, will perform a 'stress test' on all its reactors "to judge their ability to withstand earthquakes more powerful than the original design anticipated".[38]
See also
edit
References
edit- ^ "Rosatom State Atomiс Energy Corporation ROSATOM global leader in nuclear technologies nuclear energy". Archived from the original on 31 January 2021.
- ^ USA. (1982). Technology and Soviet energy availability. Boulder (Colo.: Westview press. p. 126.
- ^ a b "State support pivotal to Russia's nuclear sector, says report". World Nuclear News. 12 July 2019. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
- ^ "Nuclear rethink urged". The Moscow News. 21 March 2011. Archived from the original on 19 November 2011.
- ^ "Benchmarking the global nuclear industry 2012 Heading for a fast recovery" (PDF). Ernst & Young. 11 October 2012. Retrieved 13 October 2014.[permanent dead link]
- ^ "Rosatom today and overview of its current and prospective Nuclear Power Plant projects" (PDF). Rosatom. 21 August 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 October 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
- ^ "International Standards of Safety and the Modern Projects of Nuclear Power Stations" (PDF). Rosatom. 4 November 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2014. Retrieved 14 October 2014.
- ^ "Russia's efforts to improve safety following the Chernobyl and the Fukushima accidents" (PDF). IBRAE. 6 November 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2014.
- ^ [1] Pulitzer Center On Crisis Reporting
- ^ "Russia leads the world at nuclear-reactor exports". The Economist. 7 August 2018. Retrieved 10 August 2018.
- ^ Nikolay Fil (26–28 July 2011). "Status and perspectives of VVER Status and perspectives of VVER nuclear power plants nuclear power plants" (PDF). OKB Gidropress. IAEA. Retrieved 28 September 2011.
- ^ "Russia connects Novovoronezh 6 reactor to grid". World Nuclear News. 5 August 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
- ^ "Russia invests in nuclear". World Nuclear News. 20 December 2013. Retrieved 21 December 2013.
- ^ a b "Russia to build 11 new nuclear reactors by 2030". World Nuclear News. 10 August 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016.
- ^ "Rosatom considers delaying reactor commissioning". Nuclear Engineering International. 30 October 2017. Retrieved 6 November 2017.
- ^ "Rosatom's floating nuclear power unit arrives in Chukotka, Russia". Power Technology | Energy News and Market Analysis. 15 September 2019. Retrieved 17 September 2019.
- ^ Igor Koudrik and Alexander Nikitin (13 December 2011). "Second life: The questionable safety of life extensions for Russian nuclear power plants". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. Archived from the original on 25 March 2013. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ "Rosatom State Atomic Energy Cooperation | ROSATOM's first of a kind floating power unit connects to isolated electricity grid in Pevek, Russia's Far East". rosatom.ru. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
- ^ a b "Nuclear Power in Russia | Russian Nuclear Energy – World Nuclear Association". world-nuclear.org. Retrieved 14 May 2018.
- ^ "Кольскую АЭС-2 начнут строить в 2028 году". Retrieved 9 December 2023.
- ^ "Kursk's second unit retires after 45 years operation". Retrieved 31 January 2024.
- ^ "Запуск первого энергоблока Курской АЭС-2 планируется в декабре 2024".
- ^ "The construction of the 2nd innovative VVER-TOI power block at the Kursk NPP-2 site has started ahead of schedule". rosenergoatom.ru. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
- ^ "Russia retires Leningrad unit 1". World Nuclear News. World Nuclear Association. Retrieved 27 December 2018.
- ^ "Four New NPP Units Will be Built in Russia".
- ^ "Ленинградской атомной станции добавят мощности". 15 March 2024.
- ^ "Russia commits to further floating NPPs : New Nuclear – World Nuclear News". world-nuclear-news.org. Retrieved 28 July 2021.
- ^ ""Росатом" и Kaz Minerals предварительно договорились о поставках электроэнергии для Баимского ГОКа". Interfax.ru (in Russian). Retrieved 3 September 2021.
- ^ "Russia plans new generation of FNPPS – Nuclear Engineering International". 6 January 2021.
- ^ a b "Заложен корпус первого плавучего энергоблока в арктическом исполнении на базе реакторов РИТМ-200 – Атомэнергомаш". aem-group.ru. Archived from the original on 30 August 2022. Retrieved 30 August 2022.
- ^ "В Якутии собираются строить АЭС мощностью не менее 55 МВт".
- ^ ""Росатом" начал строительство реактора Брест-300 в Северске". 8 June 2021.
- ^ "Russia prepares to build new nuclear reactors at Leningrad and Smolensk – Nuclear Engineering International". 26 June 2020.
- ^ "VVER units planned for Leningrad and Smolensk".
- ^ Challenging NPP Projects JSC ASE
- ^ NPP JSC ASE (Jordan)
- ^ "Hungary licenses two new reactors at Paks nuclear plant". Reuters. 27 August 2022.
- ^ Matthew L. Wald (24 March 2011). "Russia Plans to Test Reactors For Ability to Survive Quakes". The New York Times.
External links
edit