Pahari-Pothwari is an Indo-Aryan language variety of Lahnda group,[b] spoken on the Pothohar Plateau in the far north of Punjab, Pakistan, as well as in most of Pakistan-administered Azad Kashmir and in western areas of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir, is known by a variety of names, the most common of which are Pahari (English: /pəˈhɑːri/;[1] an ambiguous name also applied to other unrelated languages of India), and Pothwari (or Pothohari).
| Pahari-Pothwari | |
|---|---|
| پوٹھواری, پہاڑی Poṭhwārī, Pahāṛī | |
 | |
| Native to | Pakistan |
| Region | Pothohar region of Punjab, Azad Kashmir and western parts of Jammu and Kashmir, other parts of India including Punjab and Haryana (by partition refugees and descendants) |
| Ethnicity | Pahari Mirpuri diaspora |
Native speakers | several million[a] |
| Shahmukhi | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | phr |
| Glottolog | paha1251 Pahari Potwari |
The language is transitional between Hindko and Standard Punjabi[2] and is mutually intelligible with both.[3] There have been efforts at cultivation as a literary language,[4] although a local standard has not been established yet.[5] The Shahmukhi script is used to write the language, such as in the works of Punjabi poet Mian Muhammad Bakhsh.
Grierson in his early 20th-century Linguistic Survey of India assigned it to a so-called "Northern cluster" of Lahnda (Western Punjabi), but this classification, as well as the validity of the Lahnda grouping in this case, have been called into question.[6] In a sense both Pothwari, as well as other Lahnda varieties, and Standard Punjabi are "dialects" of a "Greater Punjabi" macrolanguage.[7]
Due to effects of dominant languages in Pakistani media like Urdu, Standard Punjabi and English and religious impact of Arabic and Persian, Pahari-Pothwari like other regional varieties of Pakistan are continuously expanding its vocabulary base with loan words.[8]
Geographic distribution and dialects
edit
There are at least three major dialects: Pothwari, Mirpuri and Pahari.[c]
The dialects are mutually intelligible,[9] but the difference between the northernmost and the southernmost dialects (from Muzaffarabad and Mirpur respectively) is enough to cause difficulties in understanding.[10]
Pothohar Plateau
editPothwari (پوٹھواری), also spelt Potwari, Potohari and Pothohari (پوٹھوہاری),[11] is spoken in the Pothohar Plateau of northern Punjab,[12] an area administratively within Rawalpindi division.[13] Pothwari is its most common name, and some call it Pindiwal Punjabi to differentiate it from the Punjabi spoken elsewhere in Punjab.[14]
Pothwari extends southwards up to the Salt Range, with the city of Jhelum marking the border with Majha Punjabi. To the north, Pothwari transitions into the Pahari-speaking area, with Bharakao, near Islamabad, generally regarded as the point where Pothwari ends and Pahari begins.[15] Pothwari has been represented by their own people and their own community as they re-presented with their own ethnic group,[5][d] 85.1% of households had Pothwari as mother tongue.
Among the dialects of the Pahari-Pothwari dialect cluster, the variety spoken on the Pothohar is the only native language in the Rawalpindi division and it is ethno-linguistic group.[citation needed] This Pothwari is also regarded as the most prestigious dialect spoken in the region.[citation needed]
Mirpur
editEast of the Pothwari areas, across the Jhelum River into Mirpur District in Azad Kashmir, the language is more similar to Pothwari than to the Pahari spoken in the rest of Azad Kashmir.[16] Locally it is known by a variety of names:[e] Pahari, Mirpur Pahari, Mirpuri,[f] and Pothwari,[17] while some of its speakers call it Punjabi.[18] Mirpuris possess a strong sense of Kashmiri identity that overrides linguistic identification with closely related groups outside Azad Kashmir, such as the Pothwari Punjabis.[19] The Mirpur region has been the source of the greater part of Pakistani immigration to the UK, a process that started when thousands were displaced by the construction of the Mangla Dam in the 1960s and emigrated to fill labour shortages in England.[20] The British Mirpuri diaspora now numbers several hundred thousand, and Pahari has been argued to be the second most common mother tongue in the UK, yet the language is little known in the wider society there and its status has remained surrounded by confusion.[21]
Kashmir, Murree and the Galyat
editPahari (پہاڑی) is spoken to the north of Pothwari. The central cluster of Pahari dialects is found around Murree.[22] This area is in the Galyat: the hill country of Murree Tehsil in the northeast of Rawalpindi District (just north of the capital Islamabad) and the adjoining areas in southeastern Abbottabad District.[23] One name occasionally found in the literature for this language is Dhundi-Kairali (Ḍhūṇḍī-Kaiṛālī), a term first used by Grierson[24] who based it on the names of the two major tribes of the area – the Kairal and the Dhund.[12] Its speakers call it Pahari in Murree tehsil, while in Abbottabad district it is known as either Hindko or Ḍhūṇḍī.[25] Nevertheless, Hindko – properly the language of the rest of Abbottabad District and the neighbouring areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa – is generally regarded as a different language.[26] It forms a dialect continuum with Pahari, [12] and the transition between the two is in northern Azad Kashmir and in the Galyat region. For example, on the road from Murree northwest towards the city of Abbottabad, Pahari gradually changes into Hindko between Ayubia and Nathiagali.[27]
A closely related dialect is spoken across the Jhelum River in Azad Kashmir, north of the Mirpuri areas. Names associated in the literature with this dialect are Pahari (itself the term most commonly used by the speakers themselves), Chibhālī,[28] named after the Chibhal region[29] or the Chibh ethnic group,[13] and Pahari (Poonchi) (پونچھی, also spelt Punchhi). The latter name has been variously applied to either the Chibhali variety specific to the district of Poonch,[30] or to the dialect of the whole northern half of Azad Kashmir.[31] This dialect (or dialects) has been seen either as a separate dialect from the one in Murree,[24] or as belonging to the same central group of Pahari dialects.[32] The dialect of the district of Bagh, for example, has more shared vocabulary with the core dialects from Murree (86–88%) than with the varieties of either Muzaffarabad (84%) or Mirpur (78%).[33]
In Muzaffarabad the dialect shows lexical similarity[g] of 83–88% with the central group of Pahari dialects, which is high enough for the authors of the sociolinguistic survey to classify it is a central dialect itself, but low enough to warrant noting its borderline status.[34] The speakers however tend to call their language Hindko[35] and to identify more with the Hindko spoken to the west,[36] despite the lower lexical similarity (73–79%) with the core Hindko dialects of Abbottabad and Mansehra.[37] Further north into the Neelam Valley the dialect, now known locally as Parmi, becomes closer to Hindko.[38]
Pahari is also spoken further east across the Line of Control into the Pir Panjal mountains in Indian Jammu and Kashmir. The population, estimated at 1 million,[39] is found in the region between the Jhelum and Chenab rivers: most significantly in the districts of Poonch and Rajouri, to a lesser extent in neighbouring Baramulla and Kupwara,[40] and also – as a result of the influx of refugees during the Partition of 1947 – scattered throughout the rest of Jammu and Kashmir.[41] Pahari is among the regional languages listed in the sixth schedule of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir.[42] This Pahari is sometimes conflated with the Western Pahari languages spoken in the mountainous region in the south-east of Indian Jammu and Kashmir. These languages, which include Bhadarwahi and its neighbours, are often called "Pahari", although not same they are closely related to Pahari–Pothwari.[43]
Diaspora
editPahari-Pothwari is also very widely spoken in the United Kingdom. Labour shortages after World War II, and the displacement of peoples caused by the construction of the Mangla Dam, facilitated extensive migration of Pahari-Pothwari speakers to the UK during the 1950s and 1960s, especially from the Mirpur District. Academics estimate that between two thirds and 80% of people officially classified as British Pakistanis originate as part of this diaspora, with some suggesting that it is the second most spoken language of the United Kingdom, ahead of even Welsh, with hundreds of thousands of speakers.[44] However, since there is little awareness of the identity of the language among speakers,[45] census results do not reflect this.[46] The highest proportions of Pahari-Pothwari speakers are found in urban centres, especially the West Midlands conurbation and the West Yorkshire Built-up Area.[46]
Phonology
editVowels
edit| Front | Central | Back | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| oral | nasal | oral | nasal | oral | nasal | |
| Close | iː | ĩː | uː | ũː | ||
| Near-close | ɪ | ʊ | ||||
| Mid | e eː | ẽː | ə | o oː | ||
| Open | æ æː | aː | ãː | |||
| Front | Central | Back | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| oral | nasal | oral | nasal | oral | nasal | |
| Close | i iː | ĩ ĩː | u uː | ũ ũː | ||
| Mid | e | ẽ | ɐ | ɐ̃ | o | õ |
| Open | ɑ | ɑ̃ | ||||
A long diphthong /ɑi/ can be realized as [äː].[47]
Consonants
edit| Labial | Dental | Alveolar | Post-alv./ Palatal |
Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stop/ Affricate |
voiceless | p | t̪ | t | t͡ʃ | k | |
| aspirated | pʰ | t̪ʰ | tʰ | t͡ʃʰ | kʰ | ||
| voiced | b | d̪ | d | d͡ʒ | ɡ | ||
| Fricative | voiceless | f | s | ʃ | x | ||
| voiced | v | z | ɣ | ɦ | |||
| Nasal | m | n | ŋ | ||||
| Approximant | l | j | |||||
| Tap/Trill | r | ɽ | |||||
| Labial | Alveolar | Retroflex | Post-alv./ Palatal |
Velar/ Uvular |
Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stop | voiceless | p | t | ʈ | k | ||
| aspirated | pʰ | tʰ | ʈʰ | kʰ | |||
| voiced | b | d | ɖ | ɡ | |||
| breathy | bʱ | dʱ | ɖʱ | ɡʱ | |||
| Affricate | voiceless | t͡s | |||||
| aspirated | t͡sʰ | ||||||
| voiced | d͡z | ||||||
| Fricative | voiceless | (f) | s | ʃ | (χ) | h | |
| voiced | v | z | (ʒ) | (ʁ) | |||
| Nasal | m | n | ɳ | ||||
| Approximant | l | ɭ | j | ||||
| Tap/Trill | r | ɽ | |||||
- Sounds [f, ʒ, χ, ʁ, q] are heard from Persian and Arabic loanwords.
- /h/ is realized as voiced [ɦ] in word-initial position.
- /n/ before a velar consonant can be heard as [ŋ].[47]
Grammar and notable features
editFuture Tense
editThe future tense in Pothwari is formed by adding -s as opposed to the Eastern Punjabi gā.[49]
This tense is also used in other Western Punjabi dialects such as the Jatki dialects, Shahpuri, Jhangochi and Dhanni, as well as in and Hindko and Saraiki.[50]
| English | Pahari-Pothwari | Eastern Punjabi | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Transliteration | Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | Transliteration | Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | |
| I will do | Mãi karsā̃ | مَیں کرساں | ਮੈਂ ਕਰਸਾਂ | Mãi karāngā | مَیں کرانگا | ਮੈਂ ਕਰਾਂਗਾ |
| We will do | Asā̃ karsā̃ | اَساں کرساں | ਅਸਾਂ ਕਰਸਾਂ | Asī̃ karānge | اَسِیں کرانگے | ਅਸੀਂ ਕਰਾਂਗੇ |
| You will do (s) | Tū̃ karsãi | تُوں کرسَیں | ਤੂੰ ਕਰਸੈਂ | Tū̃ karãigā | تُوں کریں گا | ਤੂੰ ਕਰੇਂਗਾ |
| You will do (p) | Tusā̃ karso | تُساں کرسو | ਤੁਸਾਂ ਕਰਸੋ | Tusī̃ karoge | تُسِیں کروگے | ਤੁਸੀਂ ਕਰੋਗੇ |
| He/She will do | Ó karsi | اوه کَرسی | ਓਹ ਕਰਸੀ | Ó karega | اوه کرے گا | ਓਹ ਕਰੇਗਾ |
| They will do | Ó karsan | اوہ کرسن | ਓਹ ਕਰਸਨ | Ó karaṇge | اوه کرݨ گے | ਓਹ ਕਰਣਗੇ |
This type of future tense was also used by classical Punjabi poets. Punjabi poet Bulleh Shah sometimes uses a similar form of future tense in his poetry[51]
Shahmukhi: جو کُجھ کَرسین, سو کُجھ پاسیں
Transliteration: Jo kujh karsãi, so kujh paasãi
Translation: Whatsoever you do, is what you shall gain
- From one of Bulleh Shah's poems[52]
Continuous Tense
editSimilar to other Punjabi varieties, Pothwari uses peyā (past tense form of pēṇā) to signify the continuous tense.[53]
Present Continuous
edit| English | Pahari-Pothwari | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Transliteration | Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | |
| I am doing (m.) | Mē̃ karnā peyā ā̃̀ | میں کرنا پیا ہاں | ਮੈਂ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ |
| We are doing (m./mixed) | Asā̃ karne pa'e ā̃̀ | اساں کرنے پئے ہاں | ਅਸਾਂ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਹਾਂ |
| You are doing (sing., m.) | Tū̃ karna peya aĩ̀ | تُوں کرنا پیا ہیں | ਤੂੰ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਹੈਂ |
| You are doing (sing., f.) | Tū̃ karnī paī aĩ̀ | تُوں کرنی پئی ہیں | ਤੂੰ ਕਰਨੀ ਪਈ ਹੈਂ |
| You are doing (plural, m./mixed) | Tusā̃ karne pa'e ò | تُساں کرنے پئے ہو | ਤੁਸਾਂ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਹੋ |
| He is doing | Ó karna peya aì | اوہ کرنا پیا ہے | ਉਹ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਹੈ |
| She is doing | Ó karnī paī aì | اوہ کرنی پئی ہے | ਉਹ ਕਰਨੀ ਪਈ ਹੈ |
| They are doing (m.) | Ó karne pa'e ìn | اوہ کرنے پئے ہِن | ਉਹ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਹਿਨ |
| They are doing (f.) | Ó karniyā̃ paiyā̃ ìn | اوہ کرنیاں پئیاں ہِن | ਉਹ ਕਰਨੀਆਂ ਪਈਆਂ ਹਿਨ |
Past Continuous
editThe past continuous tense in Pothwari resembles that of Eastern Punjabi, however depending on the dialect, there may be slight variations.
| English | Pahari-Pothwari | Standard Punjabi |
|---|---|---|
| I was doing (m.) | میں کرنا پیا ساں
ਮੈਂ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਸਾਂ maĩ karna pya sã |
میں کردا پیا ساں
ਮੈਂ ਕਰਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਸਾਂ maĩ karda pya sã |
| We were doing (m./mixed) | اساں کرنے پئے سیاں/ساں
ਅਸਾਂ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਸਿਆਂ/ਸਾਂ |
اسِیں کردے پئے ساں
ਅਸੀਂ ਕਰਦੇ ਪਏ ਸਾਂ |
| You were doing (sing., m.) | تُوں کرنا پیا سیں
ਤੂੰ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਸੈਂ |
تُوں کردا پیا سیں
ਤੂੰ ਕਰਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਸੈਂ |
| You were doing (pl., m./mixed or sing. formal) | تُساں کرنے پئے سیو/سو
ਤੁਸਾਂ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਸਿਓ/ਸੋ |
تُسِیں کردے پئے سو
ਤੁਸੀਂ ਕਰਦੇ ਪਏ ਸੋ |
| He was doing | اوہ کرنا پیا سا/سی
ਉਹ ਕਰਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਸਾ/ਸੀ |
اوہ کردا پیا سی
ਉਹ ਕਰਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਸੀ |
| She was doing | اوہ کرنی پئی سی
ਉਹ ਕਰਨੀ ਪਈ ਸੀ |
اوہ کردی پئی سی
ਉਹ ਕਰਦੀ ਪਈ ਸੀ |
| They were doing (m./mixed) | اوہ کرنے پئے سے/سن
ਉਹ ਕਰਨੇ ਪਏ ਸੇ/ਸਨ |
اوہ کردے پئے سن
ਉਹ ਕਰਦੇ ਪਏ ਸਨ |
| They were doing (f.) | اوہ کرنِیاں پئیاں سِیاں/سن
ਉਹ ਕਰਨੀਆਂ ਪਈਆਂ ਸੀਆਂ/ਸਨ |
اوہ کردِیاں پئیاں سن
ਉਹ ਕਰਦੀਆਂ ਪਈਆਂ ਸਨ |
The place of "peyā" may sometimes be switched with respect to the verb.
"Tusā̃ báhū̃ changā kamm karne pa'e ò", meaning "You (plural/sing. formal) are doing a very good thing"
"Mē̃ vī tā̃ éhe gall ākhnā sā̃ peyā", meaning "I was also saying the same thing"
"Mē̃ vī tā̃ ehe gall peyā ākhnā ā̃̀", meaning "I am also saying the same thing"
Tribal groupings
editPahari-Pothwari speakers belong to the same tribes found in Punjab. While the names of the tribes remain the same, the Punjabi word for tribe Birādrī/Barādarī (برادری) becomes Bilādrī/Balādarī (بل ادری) in Pahari-Pothwari.
Numbering system
editPahari-Pothwari follows the numbering traditions of Standard Punjabi. A point of departure from Eastern Punjabi dialects occurs in the use of Trai (ترَے) instead of Tinn (تِنّ) for the number 3. Other Western Punjabi dialects also tend to use trai over tinn.[54]
Similarly, Pothwari and other Western Punjabi dialects use "Yārā̃" (یاراں) for "Gyarā̃" (گیاراں), "Trei" (ترئی) for "Tei" (تئی) "Panji" (پنجِی) for "Pachchi" (پچّی) and "Trih" (ترِیہہ) for "Tih" (تِیہہ), for the numbers 11, 23, 25, and 30.
| English | Pahari-Pothwari | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Numbers | Numerals | Transliteration | Shahmukhi | Numerals |
| One | 1 | ikk | اِکّ | ۱ |
| Two | 2 | do | دو | ۲ |
| Three | 3 | trai | ترَے | ۳ |
| Four | 4 | chār | چار | ۴ |
| Five | 5 | panj | پَنج | ۵ |
| Six | 6 | che | چھے | ۶ |
| Seven | 7 | satt | سَتّ | ۷ |
| Eight | 8 | aṭṭh | اَٹّھ | ۸ |
| Nine | 9 | nau | نَو | ۹ |
| Ten | 10 | das | دَس | ۱۰ |
Ordinals
The ordinal numbers are largely the same. The only difference occurs in the words for Second and Third. Second is Doowa (دووا) in Pothwari, whilst it is Dooja (دوجا) in Punjabi. Likewise Third is Treeya (تریا) in Pothwari whilst it is Teeja (تیجا) in Punjabi. Western Punjabi in general tends to follow this trend.
| English | Pahari-Pothwari | Standard Punjabi | Jatki | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ordinals | Shahmukhi | Transliteration | Shahmukhi | Transliteration | Shahmukhi | Transliteration |
| First | پہلا | Pehla | پہلا | Pehla | پہلا | Pehla |
| Second | دووا | Dūwā | دوجا | Dūjjā | دووا / دُوجا | Dūwā / Dūjjā |
| Third | تریا | Trīyā | تیجا | Tījjā | ترِجیا | Trījjā |
| Fourth | چوتھا | Chottha | چوتھا | Chottha | چوتھا | Chottha |
Direct case in Pahari-Pothwari
editThe direct case endings in Pahari-Pothwari remain the same as Standard Punjabi however the Direct pronouns differ.
| english | Pahari-Pothwari | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| Pronouns | Transliteration | Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi |
| I | mẽ | مَیں | ਮੈਂ |
| We | as | اَس | ਅਸ |
| You | tū̃ | تُوں | ਤੂੰ |
| You (plural) | tus | تُس | ਤੁਸ |
tus and as are rarely used and are merged with the oblique tusã and assã
The oblique/ergative case
editOblique case endings remain the same between Pahari-Pothwari and Standard Punjabi.
| English | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| pronouns | Transliteration | Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi |
| I | Same as direct case | ||
| We | Asā̄ | اساں | ਮੇਂ |
| You | Same as direct case | ||
| You(plural) | Tusā̃ | تُساں | ਤੁਸਾਂ |
| 3rd person(near) | is | ||
| 3rd person(remote) | us | ||
| 3rd person(near) plural | innā̃ | ||
| 3rd person(remote) plural | unnā̃ | ||
Vocative, Locative and Instrumental case in Punjabi
editThese cases remain the same between Pahari-Pothwari and Standard Punjabi.
Dative and definite object marker
editThe dative and definite object marker in Pothwari is kī (ਕੀ /کی) as opposed to nū̃ (ਨੂੰ / نوں) in Standard Punjabi.
For example:
The phrase: lokkā̃ nū̃ (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਨੂੰ / لوکاں نوں), meaning "to the people" in Standard Punjabi, would become lokkā̃ kī (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਕੀ / لوکاں کی) in Pothwari.
Hence, the personal pronouns would be as follows:
| English | Pahari-Pothwari | Standard Punjabi | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | |
| To me | میکی | ਮਿਕੀ | مَینُوں | ਮੈਨੂੰ |
| To you (sing.) | تُکی | ਤੁਕੀ | تَینُوں | ਤੈਨੂੰ |
| To you (plural.) | تُساں کی | ਤੁਸਾਂ ਕੀ | تُہانُوں | ਤੁਹਾਨੂੰ |
| To us | اساں کی | ਅਸਾਂ ਕੀ | سانُوں | ਸਾਨੂੰ |
| To him/her | اُس کی | ਉਸ ਕੀ | اوہنُوں | ਓਹਨੂੰ |
Genitive marker
editThe genitive marker in Pahari-Pothwari is represented through the use of nā (ਨਾ / نا) as opposed to dā (ਦਾ / دا).[55]
For example:
The phrase: lokkā̃ dā (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਦਾ / لوکاں دا), meaning "people's" or "of the people" in Pahari-Pothwari, would become lokkā̃ nā (ਲੋਕਾਂ ਨਾ / لوکاں نا).
This also affects some of the possessive pronouns as described above.
It should also be noted that in Pahari-Pothwari, the present form of verb does not end with the standard dā sound either, and is replaced with nā. This means that ākhdā would be ākhnā in Pahari-Pothwari meaning "to say" and similarly the word thakkdā would be thakknā in Pahari-Pothwari meaning "to look/to watch".
For example:
Miki eh nhi si chāhinā (میکی ایہہ نِیہ سی چاہینا), meaning "This is not what I wanted"
Oh kay ākhnā pyā ae? (اوہ کے پیا آکھنا ہے؟), meaning "What is he saying?"
This also affects the common Punjabi passive tense:
Isrā̃ nhi ākhee nā (اِسراں نہیں آکھِینا), instead of "ākhee dā", meaning "This is how it should be said"
genitive pronouns also change
| English | Pahari-Pothwari | Jatki | Hindko | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Jhangvi/Shahpuri | Dhanni | |||||||
| Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | |
| Mine | مھاڑا | ਮਹਾੜਾ | میرا | ਮੇਰਾ | مَینڈھا | ਮੈਂਢਾ | مڑھا | ਮੜ੍ਹਾ |
| Yours (sing.) | تَہاڑا | ਤਹਾੜਾ | تیرا | ਤੇਰਾ | تَینڈھا | ਤੈਂਢਾ | تُڑھا | ਤੁੜ੍ਹਾ |
| Yours (plural.) | تُساں نا | ਤੁਸਾਂ ਨਾ | تُہاڈا | ਤੁਹਾਡਾ | تُساڈا / تُساں دا | ਤੁਸਾਡਾ / ਤੁਸਾਂ ਦਾ | تُساں دا | ਤੁਸਾਂ ਦਾ |
| Ours | اساں نا / ساہڑا | ਅਸਾਂ ਨਾ / ਸਾਹੜਾ | ساڈا | ਸਾਡਾ | اساڈا / اساں دا | ਅਸਾਡਾ / ਅਸਾਂ ਦਾ | اساں دا | ਅਸਾਂ ਦਾ |
Oblique case of nouns
editPahari-Pothwari has unique forms for nouns in oblique cases. This is not observed in Standard Punjabi, but is seen in Hindko.[56]
| English | Pahari-Pothwari | Standard Punjabi | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | |
| Housework | کھرے نا کمّ | ਘਰੇ ਨਾ ਕੰਮ | گھر دا کمّ | ਘਰ ਦਾ ਕੰਮ |
| Dinner | راتی نی روٹی | ਰਾਤੀ ਨੀ ਰੋਟੀ | رات دی روٹی | ਰਾਤ ਦੀ ਰੋਟੀ |
| In a young age | نِکّی عُمرے وِچّ | ਨਿੱਕੀ ਉਮਰੀ ਵਿੱਚ | نِکّی عُمر وِچّ | ਨਿੱਕੀ ਉਮਰ ਵਿੱਚ |
| On my heart | مھاڑے دِلّے اپّر | ਮਹਾੜੇ ਦਿਲੇ ਅੱਪਰ | میرے دِل تے | ਮੇਰੇ ਦਿਲ ਤੇ |
| With care | دھیانے نال | ਧਿਆਨੇ ਨਾਲ | دھیان نال | ਧਿਆਨ ਨਾਲ |
| Patiently | ارامے نال | ਅਰਾਮੇ ਨਾਲ | ارام نال | ਅਰਾਮ ਨਾਲ |
| To my sister | پھینُو کی | ਭੈਣੂ ਕੀ | بھین نُوں | ਭੈਣ ਨੂੰ |
| For my brother | بھراُو آسطے | ਭਰਾਊ ਆਸਤੇ | بھرا آسطے | ਭਰਾ ਆਸਤੇ |
| Important detail | کمّے نی گلّ | ਕੰਮੇ ਨੀ ਗੱਲ | کمّ دی گلّ | ਕੰਮ ਦੀ ਗੱਲ |
| There's no accounting for taste | شَونقے نا کوئی مُل نہیں ہوݨا | ਸ਼ੌਂਕੇ ਨਾ ਕੋਈ ਮੁੱਲ ਨਹੀਂ ਹੋਣਾ | شَونق دا کوئی مُل نہیں ہوندا | ਸ਼ੌਂਕ ਦਾ ਕੋਈ ਮੁੱਲ ਨਹੀਂ ਹੁੰਦਾ |
| Understand the point | گلّے کی سمجھ | ਗੱਲੇ ਕੀ ਸਮਝ | گلّ نُوں سمجھ | ਗੱਲ ਨੂੰ ਸਮਝ |
Adding "i" to root form of verb
editA peculiar feature of Pahari-Pothwari is to end the basic root form of verbs with an "i" sound.[57]
| English | Pahari-Pothwari | Standard Punjabi | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | |
| It happened | ہوئی گیا | ਹੋਈ ਗਿਆ | ہو گیا | ਹੋ ਗਿਆ |
| It may be possible | ہوئی سکنا اے | ਹੋਈ ਸਕਣਾ ਐ | ہو سکدا اے | ਹੋ ਸਕਦਾ ਐ |
| Together | رلی مِلی تے | ਰਲੀ ਮਿਲੀ ਤੇ | رل مِل کے | ਰਲ ਮਿਲ ਕੇ |
| Finish it | مُکائی چھوڑ | ਮੁਕਾਈ ਛੋੜ | مُکا چھڈّ/چھوڑ | ਮੁਕਾ ਛੋੜ/ਛੱਡ |
| Look | تکّی کنو | ਤੱਕੀ ਘਿਨੋ | تکّ لوو | ਤੱਕ ਲਵੋ |
| Come back after having lunch | روٹی کھائی تے مُڑی اچھِیں | ਰੋਟੀ ਖਾਈ ਤੇ ਮੁੜੀ ਅਛੀਂ | روٹی کھا کے مُڑ آوِیں | ਰੋਟੀ ਖਾ ਕੇ ਮੁੜ ਆਵੀਂ |
| Eat it | کھائی کھِن | ਖਾਈ ਘਿਨ | کھا لَے | ਖਾ ਲੈ |
| Sit quietly for once | کدے ٹِکی تے بہی وی جایا کر | ਕਦੇ ਟਿੱਕੀ ਤੇ ਬਹੀ ਵੀ ਜਾਇਆ ਕਰ | کدے ٹِک کے بہہ وی جایا کر | ਕਦੇ ਟਿੱਕ ਕੇ ਬਹਿ ਵੀ ਜਾਇਆ ਕਰ |
Vocabulary
editWords for "Coming" and "Going"
editThe Pahari-Pothwari word for "coming" is acchṇā, whereas for "going" gacchṇā, julṇā and jāṇā are used.[57]
| English | Pahari-Pothwari | Jatki | Standard Punjabi | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | Shahmukhi | Gurmukhi | |
| I am coming | میں اچھنا پیا ہاں | ਮੈਂ ਅੱਛਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ | میں آوندا پیا ہاں | ਮੈਂ ਆਵੰਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ | میں آوندا پیا ہاں | ਮੈਂ ਆਉਂਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ |
| I am going | میں گچھنا پیا ہاں
میں جانا پیا ہاں |
ਮੈਂ ਗੱਛਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ
ਮੈਂ ਜਾਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ |
میں ویندا پیا ہاں
میں جاوندا پیا ہاں |
ਮੈਂ ਵੇਂਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ
ਮੈਂ ਜਾਵੰਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ |
میں جاندا پیا ہاں | ਮੈਂ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਹਾਂ |
| I am not understanding | میکی سمجھ نہیں اچھنی پئی | ਮਿਕੀ ਸਮਝ ਨਹੀਂ ਅੱਛਨੀ ਪਈ | مینُوں سمجھ نہیں آوندی پئی | ਮੈਨੂੰ ਸਮਝ ਨਹੀਂ ਆਵੰਦੀ ਪਈ | مینُوں سمجھ نہیں آوندی پئی | ਮੈਨੂੰ ਸਮਝ ਨਹੀਂ ਆਉਂਦੀ ਪਈ |
| I will leave tomorrow | میں کلّھ گیساں
میں کلّھ جاساں |
ਮੈਂ ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਗੇਸਾਂ
ਮੈਂ ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਜਾਸਾਂ |
میں کلّھ ویساں
میں کلّھ جاساں |
ਮੈਂ ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਵੇਸਾਂ
ਮੈਂ ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਜਾਸਾਂ |
میں کلّھ جاواں گا | ਮੈਂ ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਜਾਵਾਂਗਾ |
| We are going for work | اساں کمّے اپّر جُلے ہاں | ਅਸਾਂ ਕੰਮੇ ਅੱਪਰ ਜੁਲੇ ਹਾਂ | اسِیں کمّ تے چلے ہاں | ਅਸੀਂ ਕੰਮ ਤੇ ਚਲੇ ਹਾਂ | اسِیں کمّ تے چلے ہاں | ਅਸੀਂ ਕੰਮ ਤੇ ਚਲੇ ਹਾਂ |
| It happens | ہوئی گچھنا ہے
ہوئی جُلنا ہے ہوئی جانا ہے |
ਹੋਈ ਗੱਛਨਾ ਹੈ
ਹੋਈ ਜੁਲਨਾ ਹੈ ਹੋਈ ਜਾਨਾ ਹੈ |
ہو ویندا ہے
ہو جاوندا ہے |
ਹੋ ਵੇਂਦਾ ਹੈ
ਹੋ ਜਾਵੰਦਾ ਹੈ |
ہو جاندا ہے | ਹੋ ਜਾਂਦਾ ਹੈ |
| Sit down | بہی جُل
بہی گچھ بہی جا |
ਬਹੀ ਜੁਲ
ਬਹੀ ਗੱਛ ਬਹੀ ਜਾ |
بہہ ونج
بہہ جا |
ਬਹਿ ਵੰਞ
ਬਹਿ ਜਾ |
بہہ جا | ਬਹਿ ਜਾ |
| I will take him along | اُسکی وی نال گھِنی جاساں
اُسکی وی نال گھِنی جُلساں |
ਉਸਕੀ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨੀ ਜਾਸਾਂ
ਉਸਕੀ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨੀ ਜੁਲਸਾਂ |
اوہنُوں وی نال لے ویساں/جاساں
اوہنُوں وی نال گھِن ویساں |
ਓਹਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਲੈ ਵੇਸਾਂ/ਜਾਸਾਂ
ਓਹਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਵੇਸਾਂ |
اوہنُوں وی نال لَے جاواں گا | ਓਹਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਲੈ ਜਾਵਾਂਗਾ |
The imperative for gacchṇā is both gacch and gau.
Causative verbs
editPahari-Pothwari causative verbs end with -ālnā.[58]
| English | Pahari-Pothwari | Standard Punjabi | Jatki |
|---|---|---|---|
| To cause to eat | کھوالݨا | کھواوݨا | کھواوݨا |
| To cause to drink | پیالݨا | پیاوݨا | پِواوݨا |
| To cause to bathe | نہوالݨا | نہواوݨا | نہواوݨا |
| To cause to wash | دھوالݨا | دھواوݨا | دھواوݨا |
| To cause to cry | رووالنا | رواوݨا | رواوݨا |
| To cause to sleep | سوالݨا | سواوݨا | سواوݨا |
| To cause to sit | بہالݨا | بہاوݨا | بہاوݨا |
| To cause to stand | اُٹھالݨا | اُٹھاوݨا | اُٹھاوݨا |
*Notes
Not all causative verbs are formed like this, e.g. to play -kheṛṇā to khaṛāṇa
Words used for "Taking" and "Bringing"
editCommonly observed in the Lahnda dialects is the use of Ghinṇā (گھِننا)[59][60] and Aaṇnā (آننا)[61][62] instead of the Eastern Punjabi words Laiṇā (لَینا) and Lyāṇā (لیانا).
Notice how Ghin āo becomes Ghini achho, and Ghin ghidā becomes Ghini ghidā in accordance with Pothwari grammar and vocabulary.
| English | Jatki | Pahari-Pothwari | Hindko | Saraiki | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shahpuri/Jhangochi | Dhanni | ||||
| From tomorrow onwards, I'll also bring it for you, just cope for today. | کلّ توں میں تُہانُوں وی لیا دِتّا کرساں، اجّ گُزارہ کر لوو
ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਤੋਂ ਮੈਂ ਤੁਹਾਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਲਿਆ ਦਿੱਤਾ ਕਰਸਾਂ, ਅੱਜ ਗੁਜ਼ਾਰਾ ਕਰ ਲਵੋ |
کلّ توں میں تُسانُوں وی آݨ دِتّا کریساں، اجّ گُزارہ کر گھِنو
ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਤੋਂ ਮੈਂ ਤੁਸਾਂ ਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਆਣ ਦਿੱਤਾ ਕਰੇਸਾਂ, ਅੱਜ ਗੁਜ਼ਾਰਾ ਕਰ ਘਿਨੋ |
کلّ توں میں تُساں کی وی آݨی دیا کرساں، اجّ گُزارہ کری گھِنو
ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਤੋਂ ਮੈਂ ਤੁਸਾਂ ਕੀ ਵੀ ਆਣੀ ਦਿਆ ਕਰਸਾਂ, ਅੱਜ ਗੁਜ਼ਾਰਾ ਕਰੀ ਘਿਨੋ |
کلّ توں میں تُساں آں وی آݨ دیا کرساں، اجّ گُزارہ کر گھِنو
ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਤੋਂ ਮੈਂ ਤੁਸਾਂ ਆਂ ਵੀ ਆਣ ਦਿਆ ਕਰਸਾਂ, ਅੱਜ ਗੁਜ਼ਾਰਾ ਕਰ ਘਿਨੋ |
کلّ توں میں تُہاکُوں وی آݨ ڈِتّا کریساں، اجّ گُزارہ کر گھِنو
ਕੱਲ੍ਹ ਤੋਂ ਮੈਂ ਤੁਹਾਕੂੰ ਵੀ ਆਣ ਡਿੱਤਾ ਕਰੇਸਾਂ, ਅੱਜ ਗੁਜ਼ਾਰਾ ਕਰ ਘਿਨੋ |
| Bring him along as well. | اوہنُوں وی نال لَے آوو
ਓਹਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਲੈ ਆਵੋ |
اوہنُوں وی نال گھِن آوو
ਓਹਨੂੰ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਆਵੋ |
اُسکی وی نال گھِنی اچھو
ਉਸਕੀ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨੀ ਅਛੋ |
اُساں وی نال گھِن آؤ
ਉਸਾਂ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਆਓ |
اُوکُوں وی نال گھِن آوو
ਊਕੂੰ ਵੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਆਵੋ |
| They took it from me as well | اُنھاں میرے کولُوں وی لَے لیا
ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਮੇਰੇ ਕੋਲੂੰ ਵੀ ਲੈ ਲਿਆ |
اُنھاں مینڈھے کولُوں وی گھِن گھِدا
ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਮੈਂਢੇ ਕੋਲੂੰ ਵੀ ਘਿਨ ਘਿਦਾ |
اُنھاں مھاڑے کولُوں وی گھِنی گھِدا
ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਮਹਾੜੇ ਕੋਲੂੰ ਵੀ ਘਿਨੀ ਘਿਦਾ |
اُنھان مڑھے کولُوں وی گھِن گھِدا
ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਮੜ੍ਹੇ ਕੋਲੂੰ ਵੀ ਘਿਨ ਘਿਦਾ |
اُنھاں میڈے کولُوں وی گھِن گھِدا
ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਮੈਂਡੇ ਕੋਲੂੰ ਵੀ ਘਿਨ ਘਿਦਾ |
| He is coming | اوہ لیاندا پیا ہے
ਓਹ ਲਿਆਂਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਐ |
اوہ اݨیدا پیا ہے
ਓਹ ਅਣੇਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਐ |
اوہ آݨنا پیا ہے
ਓਹ ਆਣਨਾ ਪਿਆ ਐ |
اوہ آݨدا پیا ہے
ਓਹ ਆਣਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਐ |
اوہ اݨیدا پیا ہے
ਓਹ ਅਣੇਦਾ ਪਿਆ ਐ |
| We will also have to bring them back | اُنھاں نُوں واپس وی لیاوَݨا ہوسی
ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਨੂੰ ਵਾਪਿਸ ਵੀ ਲਿਆਵਣਾ ਹੋਸੀ |
اُنھاں نُوں واپس وی آݨنا ہوسی
ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਨੂੰ ਵਾਪਿਸ ਵੀ ਆਣਨਾ ਹੋਸੀ |
اُنھاں کی واپس وی آݨنا ہوسی
ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਕੀ ਵਾਪਿਸ ਵੀ ਆਣਨਾ ਹੋਸੀ |
اُنھاں آں واپس وی آݨنا ہوسی
ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਆਂ ਵਾਪਿਸ ਵੀ ਆਣਨਾ ਹੋਸੀ |
اُنھاں کُوں واپس وی آݨنا ہوسی
ਉਨ੍ਹਾਂ ਕੂੰ ਵਾਪਿਸ ਵੀ ਆਣਨਾ ਹੋਸੀ |
| Eat it | کھا لَے
ਖਾ ਲੈ |
کھا گھِن
ਖਾ ਘਿਨ |
کھائی گھِن
ਖਾਈ ਘਿਨ |
کھا گھِن
ਖਾ ਘਿਨ |
کھا گھِن
ਖਾ ਘਿਨ |
| Bring it
Brought it |
چا لیاؤ
چا لیاندا ਚਾ ਲਿਆਓ ਚਾ ਲਿਆਂਦਾ |
چا آݨو
چا آندا ਚਾ ਆਣੋ ਚਾ ਆਂਦਾ |
چائی آݨو
چائی آندا ਚਾਈ ਆਣੋ ਚਾਈ ਆਂਦਾ |
چا آݨو
چا آندا ਚਾ ਆਣੋ ਚਾ ਆਂਦਾ |
چا آݨو
چا آندا ਚਾ ਆਣੋ ਚਾ ਆਂਦਾ |
| Take it
Took it |
چا لوو
چا لیا ਚਾ ਲਵੋ ਚਾ ਲਿਆ |
چا گھِنو
چا گھِدا ਚਾ ਘਿਨੋ ਚਾ ਘਿਦਾ |
چائی گھِنو
چائی گھِدا ਚਾਈ ਘਿਨੋ ਚਾਈ ਘਿਦਾ |
چا گھِنو
چا گھِدا ਚਾ ਘਿਨੋ ਚਾ ਘਿਦਾ |
چا گھِنو
چا گھِدا ਚਾ ਘਿਨੋ ਚਾ ਘਿਦਾ |
| He will take him along | اوہ ایہنُوں نال لَے ویسی
اوہ ایہنُوں لے جاسی ਉਹ ਇਹਨੂੰ ਨਾਲ ਲੈ ਵੇਸੀ/ਜਾਸੀ ਉਹ ਇਹਨੂੰ ਨਾਲ ਲੈ ਜਾਸੀ |
اوہ ایہنُوں نال گھِن ویسی
ਉਹ ਇਹਨੂੰ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਵੈਸੀ |
اوہ اِسکی نال گھِنی گیسی
اوہ اِسکی نال گھِنی جُلسی اوہ اِسکی نال گھِنی جاسی ਉਹ ਇਸਕੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨੀ ਗੇਸੀ ਉਹ ਇਸਕੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨੀ ਜੁਲਸੀ ਉਹ ਇਸਕੀ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨੀ ਜਾਸੀ |
اوہ اِساں نال گھِن جُلسی
ਉਹ ਇਸਾਂ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਜੁਲਸੀ |
اوہ اِیکُوں نال گھِن ویسی
ਉਹ ਈਕੂੰ ਨਾਲ ਘਿਨ ਵੇਸੀ |
Irregular past tense of verbs
editPahari-Pothwari generally follows the common Punjabi irregular verbs (e.g. khādhā, peetā, nahātā, dhotā, moyā, latthā, khalotā, ḍaṭṭhā, suttā, keetā, dittā, ghidā, seetā, baddhā).
Some additional forms are observed in bantā (بنتا) for banyā and khaltā (کھلتا) for khalā.
For example:
Miki sarkay apar khaltyon addhā ghantā hoi gya sā
Menu sark tey khalyā̃/khlotyā̃ addhā ghantā ho gya si
(It had been an hour since I was waiting on the road)
Chā kadū ni banti hoi ae
Chā kadū di bani hoi ae
(The tea has been ready for quite some time)
Interrogative words
edit| English | Pahari-Pothwari | Jatki | Standard |
|---|---|---|---|
| Why | کِیاں
ਕੀਆਂ |
کیوں
ਕਿਓਂ |
کیوں
ਕਿਓਂ |
| Where | کتھے
ਕੁੱਥੇ |
کِتھّے
ਕਿੱਥੇ |
کِتھّے
ਕਿੱਥੇ |
| Whither | کُدھّر
ਕੁੱਧਰ |
کِدّے
ਕਿੱਦੇ |
کِدّھر
ਕਿੱਧਰ |
| Who | کُݨ
ਕੁਣ |
کَوݨ
ਕੌਣ |
کَوݨ
ਕੌਣ |
| What? | کے؟
ਕੇ |
کیہہ / کی
ਕੇਹ / ਕੀ |
کی / کِیہہ
ਕੀ / ਕੀਹ |
Pahari-Pothwari vocabulary similarities with other Western Punjabi dialects
edit| English | Pahari-Pothwari | Jatki | Hindko | Saraiki |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Very / Much | بھو | بہُوں | بہُوں | بہُوں |
| Go to sleep | سئی گو | سَیں ونج | سَیں جُل | سم ونج |
| Alright / Okay | ہلا | ہلا | ہلا | ہلا |
| Boy | جاکت / جاتک | جاتک / چھوہر | جندک | چھُوہر |
| What is his name? | کے نا اوسنا؟ | کیہ/کے ناں اُس؟ | کے ناں اُس؟ | کیا ناں اُس؟ |
| Take | گھِنو | لَوو (جھنگوچی/شاہپُوری)
گھِنو (دھنی) |
گھِنو | گھِنو |
| Bring | آنو | لیاوو (جھنگوچی/شاہپُوری)
آنو (دھنی) |
آنو | آنو |
| He speaks like us | اوہ اساں آر بولنا اے | اوہ ساڈے آر بولیندا اے | اوہ اساں آر بولدا اے | اوہ ساڈے آر الیندا اے |
| Let's go | آ جُلِیئے | آ چلِیئے/جُلِیے | آ جُلاں | آ جُلُوں |
| Lift/Raise | چاؤ | چاوو | چاؤ | چاوو |
| Life | حیاتی | حیاتی | حیاتی | حیاتی |
Notes
edit- ^ Baart (2003, p. 10) provides an estimate of 3.8 million, presumably for the population in Pakistan alone. Lothers & Lothers (2010, p. 9) estimate the Pakistani population at well over 2.5 million and the UK diaspora at over 0.5 million. The population in India is reported in Ethnologue (2017) to be about 1 million as of 2000.
- ^ There is no consensus among linguists or Pahari-Pothwari speakers in terms of its status as a dialect of Punjabi or a separate language entirely. For the difficulties in assigning the labels "language" and "dialect", see Shackle (1979) for Punjabi and Masica (1991, pp. 23–27) for Indo-Aryan generally.
- ^ According to Lothers & Lothers (2010, p. 2). Abbasi (2010, p. 104) adds as a fourth dialect the Poonchi spoken from Poonch to the Neelam Valley. Yet another classification is reportedly presented in Karnai (2007).
- ^ For example, according to the 1981 census report for Rawalpindi District
- ^ One language activist from the diaspora in Britain "[has] said that he does not give the language a single name because those who speak the language call it many different things." (Lothers & Lothers 2012, p. 3).
- ^ Some, at least in the British diaspora, consider this term to be a misnomer if applied to the language. (Lothers & Lothers 2012, p. 3).
- ^ The similarity between wordlists containing 217 items of basic vocabulary from each location. (Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 15–16)
References
edit- ^ "Pahari". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
- ^ Shackle 1979, pp. 200–201.
- ^ Hussain, Qandeel (2020-12-31). "Punjabi (India and Pakistan) – Language Snapshot". Language Documentation and Description. 19: 144. doi:10.25894/ldd71.
- ^ Masica 1991, p. 440.
- ^ a b Shackle 1983, p. 183.
- ^ Shackle 1979, p. 201: Pothohari "is often so close to Panjabi that any attempt to maintain the Lahndi scheme ought probably to reckon it as 'Lahndi merging into Panjabi'."
- ^ Rahman, Tariq (1995-01-01). "The Siraiki Movement in Pakistan". Language Problems and Language Planning. 19 (1): 16. doi:10.1075/lplp.19.1.01rah. ISSN 0272-2690.
- ^ Shams, Shammim Ara (2020). "The Impact of Dominant Languages on Regional Languages: A Case Study of English, Urdu and Shina". Pakistan Social Sciences Review. 4 (III): 1092–1106. doi:10.35484/pssr.2020(4-III)79.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 2.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 86. Speakers from Muzaffarabad "consider the Mirpur dialect different enough that it is difficult to understand."
- ^ The alternative English spellings are from Ethnologue (2017).
- ^ a b c Abbasi & Asif 2010, p. 201.
- ^ a b Grierson 1919, p. 432.
- ^ John, Asher (2009). "Two dialects one region : a sociolinguistic approach to dialects as identity markers". CardinalScholar 1.0.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2–3, 19, 112.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2012, pp. 12, 26. At least in terms of lexical similarity..
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2–3, 5, 19, 100.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 44.
- ^ Shackle 2007, p. 114.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2012, p. 1.
- ^ Hussain 2015, pp. 483–84.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 23.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2, 5.
- ^ a b Abbasi 2010, p. 104.
- ^ Hindko according to Lothers & Lothers (2010, pp. 5, 39) and Dhundi according to Grierson (1919, p. 495). Pahari is reported in both sources.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 40, 126–27. The speakers of Pahari in Abbottabad District regard the Hindko of the city of Abbottabad as a different language.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2, 40.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 2, 5, 8.
- ^ Grierson 1919, p. 505.
- ^ Grierson 1919, p. 505 and corresponding map.
- ^ Abbasi 2010, p. 104; Abbasi & Asif 2010, pp. 201–202
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, sec. 3.1. The varieties surveyed here are from Bagh and Muzaffarabad.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 24. The wordlists that form the basis of this comparison are from the variety of Neela Butt.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 24–25.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 26, 80.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, pp. 108, 110.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 24.
- ^ Lothers & Lothers 2010, p. 26; Akhtar & Rehman 2007, p. 68. The conclusion is similarly based on lexical similarity and the comparison is with the Hindko of the Kaghan Valley on one hand and with the Pahari of the Murre Hills on the other.
- ^ A 2000 estimate reported in Ethnologue (2017)
- ^ Singh 2014, p. 18; Bhat 2014, ch. 1, pp. 38, 40
- ^ Lists of regions and settlements are found in Bhat (2014, ch. 1, pp. 40, 43–44) and Kour (2014).
- ^ "The Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-09-03. Retrieved 2020-04-29.
- ^ Kaul 2006, pp. 42, 256–8.
- ^ Hussain 2015.
- ^ Nazir, Farah. "What is the name of my language?". University of Oxford: Creative Multilingualism. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
- ^ a b "Language, England and Wales: Census 2021". Office for National Statistics. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
- ^ a b c Kogan, Anton I. (2011). Potxoxari Jazyk. Tatiana I. Oranskaya and Yulia V. Mazurova and Andrej A. Kibrik and Leonid I. Kulikov and Aleksandr Y. Rusakov (eds.), Jazyki Mira: Novye Indoarijskie Jazyki: Moskva: Academia. pp. 516–527.
- ^ Khan, Abdul Qadir (2013). A Preliminary Study of Pahari Language and its Sound System. pp. 1–20.
- ^ "Lahnda Structure". lisindia.ciil.org. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
- ^ "Grammar and Dictionary of Western Punjabi". archive.org. p. 50.
The future tense is formed by adding to the root the letter -s with the general personal endings
- ^ "Uth jaag ghurarry mar nhen – Bulleh Shah". Folk Punjab. Retrieved 2023-06-03.
- ^ "اُٹھ جاگ گُھراڑے مار نہیں – بلھے شاہ". Folk Punjab (in Punjabi). Retrieved 2023-06-03.
- ^ J. Wilson (1898). Western Punjabi ( Shahpur District). p. 54.
me venda pyā̃, me kamm pya karendā̃.
- ^ Bailey, Thomas Grahame (2013). Languages of the Northern Himalayas: Being Studies In The Grammar Of Twenty-Six Himalayan Dialects. Cambridge University Press.
- ^ J. Wilson. Western Punjabi ( Shahpur District). p. 1"the genitive postposition (of) is nā instead of dā...These characteristics are also found in the dialects spoken In the western tehsils of the Rawalpindi District as far north as Attack, and probably in the intervening tahsils of the Jehlam District"
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link) - ^ J. Wilson. Western Punjabi ( Shahpur District). p. 9.
In the dialect of the Salt Range many nouns, and especialy monosyllables ending in a consonant, to form the absolute singular, add to the absolute form an e if masculine, and an i or u if feminine.
- ^ a b شیراز طاہر (2016). شیراز اُللغات.
- ^ "Salah-ud-Din Panjabi dictionary". dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2023-10-26.
کھوالن مصدر کھواون.
- ^ Singh, Maya (1895). "The Panjabi dictionary". dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
GHINNAṈÁ ਘਿੱਨਣਾ v. a. To take
- ^ Grammar and dictionary of Western Panjabi, as spoken in the Shahpur district with proverbs, sayings and verses. Punjab Government Press, Lahore. 1899. p. 1.
Ghinn for Le (Take).
- ^ A. Jukes (1900). Dictionary of the Jatki or Western Panjábi Language. p. 22.
آننْڑ / Anan, v. t. To bring.
- ^ "Salah-ud-Din Panjabi dictionary". dsal.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2023-10-21.
Bibliography
edit- 1981 District Census Report of Rawalpindi. Vol. 44. Islamabad: Population Census Organization, Statistics Division, Government of Pakistan. 1984. p. 95.
- Abbasi, Muhammad Gulfraz (2010). "Is It a Language Worth Researching?". Language in India. 10 (7).
- Abbasi, Muhammad Gulfraz; Asif, Saiqa Imtiaz (2010). "Dilemma of Usage and Transmission-A Sociolinguistic Investigation of Dhundi-Pahari in Pakistan". Language in India. 10 (5): 197–214. ISSN 1930-2940.
- Akhtar, Raja Nasim; Rehman, Khawaja A. (2007). "The Languages of the Neelam Valley". Kashmir Journal of Language Research. 10 (1): 65–84. ISSN 1028-6640.
- Baart, Joan L. G. (2003). Sustainable Development and the Maintenance of Pakistan's Indigenous Languages. Islamabad.
- Bhat, Javeed Ahmad (2014). Politics of Reservations: A Comparative Study of Gujjars and Paharis of Jammu and Kashmir (PhD). Aligarh Muslim University. hdl:10603/167183.
- Grierson, George A. (1919). Linguistic Survey of India. Vol. VIII, Part 1, Indo-Aryan family. North-western group. Specimens of Sindhī and Lahndā. Calcutta: Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India.
- Hussain, Serena (2015). "Missing From the 'Minority Mainstream': Pahari-speaking Diaspora in Britain". Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development. 36 (5): 483–497. doi:10.1080/01434632.2014.953539. ISSN 0143-4632. S2CID 55100616.
- Kaul, Pritam Krishen (2006). Pahāṛi and Other Tribal Dialects of Jammu. Vol. 1. Delhi: Eastern Book Linkers. ISBN 8178541017.
- Kour, Updesh (2014). "Punchi". In Devy, G. N.; Koul, Omkar N. (eds.). The Languages of Jammu & Kashmir. People's linguistic survey of India. Vol. 12. New Delhi: Orient Blackswan. pp. 261–78. ISBN 978-81-250-5516-7.
- Lothers, Michael; Lothers, Laura (2010). Pahari and Pothwari: A Sociolinguistic Survey (Report). SIL Electronic Survey Reports. Vol. 2010–012.
- Lothers, Laura; Lothers, Michael (2012). Mirpuri Immigrants in England: A Sociolinguistic Survey. SIL Electronic Survey Reports 2012. SIL International.
- Masica, Colin P. (1991). The Indo-Aryan languages. Cambridge language surveys. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-23420-7.
- Shackle, Christopher (1979). "Problems of Classification in Pakistan Panjab". Transactions of the Philological Society. 77 (1): 191–210. doi:10.1111/j.1467-968X.1979.tb00857.x. ISSN 0079-1636.
- Shackle, Christopher (1983). "Language, Dialect and Local Identity in Northern Pakistan". In Wolfgang-Peter Zingel; Stephanie Zingel-Avé Lallemant (eds.). Pakistan in Its Fourth Decade: Current Political, Social and Economic Situation and Prospects for the 1980s. Mitteilungen des Deutschen Orient-Instituts. Vol. 23. Hamburg: Deutsches Orient-Institut. pp. 175–87.
- Shackle, Christopher (2007). "Pakistan". In Simpson, Andrew (ed.). Language and National Identity in Asia. Oxford linguistics Y. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-922648-1.
- Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2017). "Pahari-Potwari". Ethnologue (20 ed.). (access limited).
- Singh, Kuljit (2014). Identity Formation and Assertion: A Study of Pahari Speaking Community of Jammu and Kashmir (PhD). University of Jammu. hdl:10603/78359.
Further reading
edit- Karnai, Mian Karim Ullah (2007). Pahari aor Urdu: ik taqabali jaiza (in Urdu). Islamabad: National Language Authority.
- Nazir, Farah (2014). Light Verb Constructions in Potwari (PhD). University of Manchester.
