The paleoethnobotany of the Mapuche focuses on archaeological evidence supporting plant use by past and present Mapuche populations collected from multiple sites in southern Chile and the Patagonia region of Argentina. Paleoethnobotany is the study of fossil and material remains from plants, mostly seeds and residues that can be analyzed from material remains. Data can be collected from archaeological sites with a particular interest in learning about the history of agriculture in a region or the use of plants for either subsistence or medicinal use. The Mapuche are an indigenous culture native to South America. The archaeological record has revealed that the Mapuche were present in modern-day south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina from at least 500-600 BC. It is also noteworthy, that while collectively the Mapuche (Picunche, Huilliche and Moluche or Nguluche) use this endonym, there are often subsets of the culture that have more specific names based on geographic location as well as different ecological niches (See Mapuche: Etymology).
Regional sites in South America
editCentral and Southern Chile
edit
Cerro del Inga
editThe Promaucaes, a Mapuche group, were the last group of indigenous peoples to occupy this site in modern-day Chile in the Cachapoal Valley.[1] Archeobotanical analysis was conducted at these sites in relation to pre-Hispanic cultures dominated by the Incan civilization. This site serves as a point of resistance to both Incan occupation as well as Spanish colonization. Analysis of seeds and macromaterials from soil reveal the following plants were present at this site. Cultivated plants included: Maize (Zea mays), Madi (Madia chilensis), Quinoa (Chenopodium quinua), Sunflower (Helianthus sp. cf. tuberosum), Gourd (Lagenaria sp.). Fruiting bushes and trees included: Guillave (Echinopsis chilensis) Michay (Berberis sp.), Boldo (Peumus boldus), Quilo (Muehlenbeckia hastulata) Grape (Vitis sp.), Blackberry (Rubus sp.), Cocito, Palm Nut (Jubaea chilensis). Legumes included: Unidentified, small (Astragalus sp.?) Unidentified, large, Lupine (Lupinus sp.). Medicinal herbs included: Pata de Guanaco (Cistanthe grandiflora) along with some wilds plants: Various Grasses (Poaceae), Colliguay (Colliguaja odifera), Espino (Acacia caven), Lengua de Gato (Galium sp.), Sedge (Cyperus sp.), and Chenopod (Chenopodium sp.).
Central and Southern Argentina
edit.jpg)
La Pampa
editThere are a series of 5 sites (1,3,5, La Lomita) located in the La Pampa region of Argentina that demonstrate the historical presence of pre-Hispanic hunter-gatherers and farming cultures in west-central Argentina in the period of the Upper Holocene to the Lower Holocene.[2][3] Food residues were analyzed from 23 sherds from pottery obtained from these sites. The following food and plant materials were found on the internal and external surface of the sherds: Zea mays (corn), Prosopis, Poaceae phytoliths, and Fungal zoospores and hyphae. These findings suggest that there was some trading between agricultural groups of Andean region, in South-central Chile, with and the hunter-gathers of La Pampa.
West-Central Patagonia
editThere are two sites of interest for studying hunter gatherers in the Holocene in West-central Patagonia; these sites include the cave sites of El Chueco 1 (11,500–180 cal BP) and Baño Nuevo 1 (10,800–3,000 cal BP).[4] The El Chueco 1 cave is located at 44°29′36′′S; 71°11′13′′W. The Baño Nuevo is located at 45º17′ S, 71º32′ W. The west-central Patagonia region where these sites are located typically have a dry climate. The average rainfall for this area is 400 mm and the average temperature is 7 °C.[5] With regard to the stability of the region, "palaeoenvironmental reconstructions for the region indicate no major changes in the distribution of vegetation since approximately 8,000 calBP."[4][6] Samples for these two sites gathered information about plant micro-remains from the Pleistocene-Holocene transition to the Late Holocene. The number of different types of plants from the stratigraphy sampled varied between the two sites, with EC1 exhibiting fewer plant micro-remains in the Early Holocene with a fairly steady increase into the Late Holocene, while BN1 exhibited a greater range of plant micro-remains in the Early Holocene and there was a steady decline in percentage of plant micro-remains in the sample.[4] The micro-remains of the plants suggest that the following plants were in use at these sites: Alstroemeriaceae, Apiaceae, Apiaceae, Berberis, Brassicaceae, Brassicaceae, Calceolariaceae, Carex sp., Chenopodiaceae, Convolvulaceae, Cyperus sp., Cyperaceae, Eleocharis sp., Ericaceae, Fabaceae, Fragaria chiloensis, Galium sp., Lamiaceae, Libertia sp., Malvaceae, Phacelia sp., Poaceae, Polygonaceae, Portulaceae, Rubus sp., Scirpus sp., and Uncinia sp. with a large number of the plants samples unable to be identified.[4]
Sierras de Córdoba
editIn Central Argentina, there is some evidence of agriculture in the region by 1000 BP.[7] The Sierras de Córdoba, in Central Argentina, are west of the modern city of Córdoba and east of the Andean range separating Argentina from Chile. In one study, 15 sites in the Sierras de Córdoba were analyzed for plant macroremains and microremains. The following results were obtained from the Late Holocene and into the Pre-Columbian period. Quebrada Norte 7: Sarcomphalus mistol, Lithraea molloides, Zea mays, Condalia sp., Prosopis sp., Schinua cf. areria, Phaseolus sp., Chenopodium quinoa var. quinoa, C. quinoa cf. var. melanospermum, Amaranthus sp.; Pozancón 1: Solanum cf. tuberosum, cf. Ipomea/Manihot.; Casa del Sol 8: Zea mays.; El Alto 3: Polylepis autralis, Maytenus boaria.; Quebrada del Real 1: Chenopodium sp., Zea mays.; Cruz Chiquita 3: Zea mays.; Río Yuspe 11: Sarcomphalus mistol.; Boyo Paso 2: Sarcomphalus mistol, Zea mays, Phaseolus vulgaris, Prosopis sp., Oxalis sp.; Yaco Pampa 1: Zea mays, cf. Prosopis sp.; Arroyo Tala Cañada 1: Zea mays, Cucurbita sp., Phaseolus vulgaris, P. lunatus.; Arroyo Talainín 2: cf. Lithraea molloides.; C.Pun.39: Prosopis sp., Chenopodium/Amaranthus sp., Zea mays, P. vulgaris, P. lunatis, Cucurbita sp.; Río Yuspe 14: Sarcomphalus mistol.; Puesto la Esquina 1: Zea mays, P. vulgaris var. vulgaris, P vulgaris var. aborigineus, P. lunatus.; Cerco de la Cueva Pintada: cf. Prosopis sp.; Arroyo Tala Huasi: Zea mays.[7]
Contemporary Mapuche ethnobotany
editPlant use from modern ethnographic data:[8][9]
| Order | Family | Species, Latin name | Indigenous Name |
|---|---|---|---|
| Algae | Durvillaceae | Durvillaea utilis | Collofe |
| Lichens | Usneaceae | Usnea florida | Ponpon mamiill |
| Bryophyta | Marchantiaceae | Marchantia berteroana | Paillahue |
| Pteridophyta | Polypodiaceae | Blechnum hastatum | Anuculcul |
| Pteridophyta | Polypodiaceae | Nephrodium rugulosum | Huilel-lahuen |
| Pteridophyta | Polypodiaceae | Polystichum aculeatum | Piillomam-lahuen |
| Pteridophyta | Gleicheniaceae | Gleichenia littoralis | Utidahue |
| Pteridophyta | Cyathaceae | Lophosoria quadripinnata | Anpe, Ampe, Ampi |
| Pteridophyta | Equisetaceae | Equisetum arvense | Livn-voro, Livtun-chigue, Livn-cudall-cudall |
| Pteridophyta | Equisetaceae | Equisetum bogotense | Calcha-lahuen |
| Pteridophyta | Lycopodiaceae | Lycopodium paniculatum | Llanca-lahuen |
| Gymnosperms | Araucariaceae | Araucaria araucana | Pehuen Resin |
| Angiosperms | Urticaceae | Pilea elegans | Coyam-lahuen |
| Angiosperms | Proteaceae | Embothrium coccineum | Chreumtin |
| Angiosperms | Proteaceae | Lomatia ferruginea | Huinque |
| Angiosperms | Proteaceae | Lomatia hirsuta | Raddal |
| Angiosperms | Santalaceae | Quinchamalium majus | Ctinchamalin |
| Angiosperms | Loranthaceae | Lepidoceras squamifer | Epucamamiill |
| Angiosperms | Loranthaceae | Loranthus tetrandrus | Cunchral |
| Angiosperms | Polygonaceae | Muehlenbeckia tamnifolia | Pulai-vogui |
| Angiosperms | Polygonaceae | Rumex crispus | Dahue-pillan |
| Angiosperms | Phytolaccaceae | Anisomeria drastica | Pircun-lahuen |
| Angiosperms | Phytolaccaceae | Ercilla volubilis | Sinchull |
| Angiosperms | Gunneraceae | Gunnera chibensis | Nalca |
| Angiosperms | Caryophyllaceae | Pentacaena polycnemoides | Decha-lahuen |
| Angiosperms | Caryophyllaceae | Stellaria media | Quilloi |
| Angiosperms | Chenopodiaceae | Chenopodium ambrosioides | Pichipichin |
| Angiosperms | Chenopodiaceae | Chenopodium quinoa | Dahue |
| Angiosperms | Magnoliaceae | Drimys winteri | Voigue |
| Angiosperms | Monimiaceae | Laurelia sempervirens | Chrihue |
| Angiosperms | Monimiaceae | Laurelia philippiana | Huahuan |
| Angiosperms | Lauraceae | Cryptocarya rubra | Pengu |
| Angiosperms | Ranunculaceae | Caltha andicola (Gay) Walp. | Mellico |
| Angiosperms | Berberidaceae | Berberis darwinii | Chacui-hua |
| Angiosperms | Crassulaceae | Sedum telephium | Congona |
| Angiosperms | Saxifragaceae | Escallonia pulverulenta | Rùvùl |
| Angiosperms | Saxifragaceae | Escallonia revoluta | Yang |
| Angiosperms | Coriariaceae | Coriaria ruscifolia | Deu |
| Angiosperms | Rosaceae | Acaena argentea | Upelneguru |
| Angiosperms | Rosaceae | Acaena ovulifolia | Chreuo |
| Angiosperms | Rosaceae | Margyricarpus setosus | Rimu |
| Angiosperms | Mimosaceae | Acacia cavenia | Huayun, Cuhuen, Cauen |
| Angiosperms | Caesalpinaceae | Bauhinia candicans | Lahuen-Huiguln |
| Angiosperms | Papilionaceae | Psoralea glandulosa | Culen |
| Angiosperms | Papilionaceae | Sophora tetraptera | Pulu |
| Angiosperms | Cunoniaeeae | Weinmannia trichosperma | Teniu |
| Angiosperms | Geraniaceae | Geranium core-core | Corecore |
| Angiosperms | Tropaeolaceae | Tropaeolum speciosum | Rere-lahuen |
| Angiosperms | Linaceae | Linum selaginoides | Pinque-luhuen |
| Angiosperms | Oxalidaceae | Oxalis corniculata | Culle |
| Angiosperms | Oxalidaceae | Oxalis lobata | Rümü |
| Angiosperms | Oxalidaceae | Oxalis rosea | Huallco |
| Angiosperms | Oxalidaceae | Oxalis succulenta | Cuya |
| Angiosperms | Euphorbiaceae | Euphorbia lathyris | Üchrarlahuen |
| Angiosperms | Rutaceae | Pitaviu punctata | Pichrau |
| Angiosperms | Rutaceae | Ruta graveolens | Ruda |
| Angiosperms | Anacardiaceae | Schinus latifolia | Molle |
| Angiosperms | Rhamnaceae | Retanilla ephedra | Caman |
| Angiosperms | Rhamnaceae | Talguenea costata | Chralhuen |
| Angiosperms | Elaeocarpaceae | Aristotelia macqui | Maqui |
| Angiosperms | Elaeocarpaceae | Crinodendron hookerianum | Chaquigue |
| Angiosperms | Elaeocarpaceae | Crinodendron patagua | Patagua |
| Angiosperms | Tiliaceae | Tilia vulgaris | Tilo |
| Angiosperms | Malvaceae | Abutilon uitifolium | Huella |
| Angiosperms | Malvaceae | Modiola caroliuna | Pilupila |
| Angiosperms | Thymelaeaceae | Ovidia pillo-pillo | Pillo-Pillo |
| Angiosperms | Flacourtiaceae | Azara lanceolatu | Pùdhue |
Modern ethnobotany of the Selk'nam
editPlant use from Tierra del Fuego based on modern ethnographic data:[10][11]
| Species | Indigenous name | English name | Used part | Preparation way | Use | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acaena ovalifolia Ruiz & Pavón | Tâpl, hálcha | Two-spined Acaena | Root | Boiled, applied with a bandage to wounds | Medicinal | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Adesmia lotoides Hooker f. | Kiárksh | Leguminosae family | Rhizomes | Direct consumption | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Agaricus pampeanus Speg. | Álpen téen | – | Fruiting body (mushroom) | Raw | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Agropyron patagonicum (Speg.) Parodi | Sâl | Couch grass family | Flower wearing stalks | Little baskets | Technology | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Apium australe Thouars | Kiel, aitá, alché | Wild celery | Leaves and roots | Direct consumption or boiled | Food | Gusinde (1931) |
| Martínez-Crovetto (1968) | ||||||
| Gallardo (1998) | ||||||
| Beauvoir (1998) | ||||||
| Arjona patagonica Dcne | Téen | Santalaceae family | Roots and tubers | Direct consumption | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Azorella filamentosa Lam. | Téshuen | Azorella | Roots and tubers | Direct consumption or baked in the ashes | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Azorella lycopodioides Gaudich, A. monantha Clos, A. selago Hooker f., | Tes, tesh, téshue)n | Azorella | Roots and tubers | Direct consumption or baked in the ashes | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| A. trifurcata (Gaertner) Hooker f. | ||||||
| Berberis buxifolia Lam. | Maces, me’ch, miích, mich | Box-leaved barberry | Berries | Direct consumption | Food | Gusinde (1931) |
| Bridges (2000) | ||||||
| Martínez-Crovetto (1968) | ||||||
| Gallardo (1998) | ||||||
| Beauvoir | ||||||
| Berberis empetrifolia Lam. | Mich kan, mich | Crowberry-leaved barberry | Berries | Direct consumption | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Bolax caespitose Hombron & Jacquinot | Téshue)n, tíshue)n | Apiaceae family | Roots and tubers | Direct consumption or baked in the ashes | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Bolax gummifera (Lam.) Sprengel | Téshue)n, tíshue)n | Balsam bog | Roots and tubers | Direct consumption or baked in the ashes | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Boopis australis Dcne | Íshta | Calyceraceae family | Roots and tubers | Baked in the ashes | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Beauvoir (1998) | ||||||
| Calvatia bovista var. magellanica (L.) Pers. | Wó | Burst puffball | Fruiting body (mushroom) | Dried as tinder for starting fires | Technology | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Calvatia lilacina (Mont. & Berk.) Henn. | Wookét, woojét | Puffball | Fruiting body (mushroom) | Burnt: its smoke was inhaled to clear in case of a cold | Medicinal | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Chiliotrichum diffusum (Forster f.) O. Kuntze | Kóor, kó’or | Fachine | Branches | Used for tattoos. Flowers were rubbed on the eyes to clear the sight | Personal ornament. Medicinal | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Cladonia laevigata Vain. | Chepl, chispl, shûj | Lichen species | Whole plant | For body washing, before getting dry with ánhuel (Usnea sp.) | Hygiene | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Cyttaria darwinii Berkeley; C. Harioti Fischer; C. Hookeri Berkeley | Terr, têr | – | Fruiting body (mushroom) | Raw or baked | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Descurainia canenscens auct., non (Nutt) Prantl; D. antarctica (E. Fourn.) O. E. Schultz | Thai, tâíiu, taáiu | Tansy mustard genus | Seed | Ground and toasted, mixed with guanaco fat | Food | Gusinde (1931) |
| Beauvoir (1998) | ||||||
| Gallardo (1998) | ||||||
| Martínez-Crovetto (1968) | ||||||
| Drimys winteri Foster & Foster f. | Choól, chôl | Winter's Bark | Bark | Decoction against dandruff | Hygiene | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Empetrum rubrum Vahl ex Willd. | Kôl, kôle. Fruto: wasax, wáshj, wásje | Diddle-dee | Berries | Direct consumption | Food | Gusinde (1931) |
| Martínez-Crovetto (1968) | ||||||
| Festuca gracillima Hooker f. | Ôt | Tussac | Grass | Stuffing for leather shoes | Clothing | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Fistulina hepatica (Schaeff.) With. | Oandiyá; po’otá; kiliút, kéluet | Beefsteak | Fruiting body (mushroom) | Raw | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Fragaria chiloensis (L.) Mill. | Óltâ, ólta, ou)ltá | Chilean strawberry | Fruits | Direct consumption | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Gallardo (1998) | ||||||
| Hypochoeris incana (Hooker & Arn.) Macloskie; H. incana var. integrifolia (Sch. Bip. ex Walp.) Cabrera | Sóol; álbi | Asteraceae family | Roots and tubers | Grilled or baked in the ashes | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Hypochoeris radicata L. | Oitá | Hairy cat's ear | Leaves | Direct consumption | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Marsippospermum grandiflorum (L. f.) Hooker f. | Tâíiu, taáiiu, tai, táiu, Kartay | Juncaceae family | Stalk | Roasted and flattened by hand to weave baskets | Technology | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Beauvoir | ||||||
| Mysodendron punctulatum Banks ex D.C. | Ténokán, tenoká, téno | Mistletoes genus | Whole plant | Body rubbing against muscular pains | Medicinal | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Nothofagus antarctica (Forster f.) Oersted | Shuwínshi | Antarctic beech/low beech | Wood | Tools and hut building | Technology | Gusinde (1931) |
| Martínez-Crovetto (1968) | ||||||
| Nothofagus betuloides (Mirbel) Oersted | Kîeñú, kenñú, iéñu, kíniu, kiñiú | Magellan's beech | Bark | Bird hunting torches | Technology | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Nothofagus pumilio (Poeppig & Endl.) Krasser | Kualchñinke, kualchínk | Lenga | Sap | Direct consumption | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Oreomyrrhis andicola auct., non (Kunth) Hooker f. | Seltái | Apiaceae family | Roots and tubers | Direct consumption | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Pernettya mucronata (L. f.) Gaudich. ex G. Don. | Seuwh, shal | Ericaceae family | Berries | Direct consumption | Food | Gusinde (1931) |
| Beauvoir (1998) | ||||||
| Gallardo (1998) | ||||||
| Martínez-Crovetto (1968) | ||||||
| Pernettya pumila (L. f.) Hooker | Shal | Ericaceae family | Berries | Direct consumption | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Polyporus eucalyptorum Fr. | Hashkélta; eusá; eushá; ká’mi; | – | Fruiting body (mushroom) | Direct consumption | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Polyporus aff. Gayanus Lév. | Eusá | – | Fruiting body (mushroom) | Direct consumption | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Ribes magellanicum Poiret | Shéthrhen, estén, shitr, shetrr | Wild currant | Berries, tea of leaves and infusion of bark | Direct consumption or boiling of some parts | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Rubus geoides Sm. | Waásh shal | Rainberry | Berries | Direct consumption | Food | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
| Gallardo (1998) | ||||||
| Taraxacum magellanicum, Comm. ex Sch. Bip.; T. gilliesii Hooker & Arn. and T. officinale Weber | Oiten, oitá, oitáoi, oi’tá | Dandelion | Flowers, leaves and roots | Direct consumption | Food | Gusinde (1931) |
| Martínez-Crovetto (1968) | ||||||
| Beauvoir (1998) | ||||||
| Usnea magellanica (Mont.) Motyka | Ánhuel, anhól, ánjôl | Old's man beard | Whole plant | As towel | Hygiene | Martínez-Crovetto (1968) |
References
edit- ^ Rossen, Jack; Planella, María Teresa; Stehberg, Rubén (2010), "Archaeobotany of Cerro del Inga, Chile, at the Southern Inka Frontier", Distant Provinces in the Inka Empire, University of Iowa Press, pp. 14–43, doi:10.2307/j.ctt20mvff8.5, ISBN 978-1-58729-933-9
- ^ Musaubach, M. Gabriela; Berón, Mónica A. (2016-07-21). "Food residues as indicators of processed plants in hunter-gatherers' pottery from La Pampa (Argentina)". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 26 (1): 111–123. doi:10.1007/s00334-016-0581-z. ISSN 0939-6314. S2CID 132256232.
- ^ "Literature Reviews: The Gene — A Multipurpose Tool: Founder Mitochondrial Haplotypes in Amerindian Populations Bailliet G, Rothhammer F, Carnese FR, et al. Am J Hum Genet. 1994,-55:27-33". Clinical Pediatrics. 34 (10): 568. October 1995. doi:10.1177/000992289503401014. ISSN 0009-9228. S2CID 208811948.
- ^ a b c d P., Carolina Belmar; Méndez, César; Reyes, Omar (2017-09-05). "Hunter-gatherer plant resource use during the Holocene in central western Patagonia (Aisén, Chile, South America)". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 26 (6): 607–625. doi:10.1007/s00334-017-0632-0. ISSN 0939-6314. S2CID 134054395.
- ^ Luebert, Federico; Pliscoff, Patricio (2012-01-01). "Variabilidad climática y bioclimas de la Región de Valparaíso, Chile". Investigaciones Geográficas (44): 41. doi:10.5354/0719-5370.2012.26408. ISSN 0719-5370.
- ^ Khare, C.P. (2007), "Gnetum montanum Markgraf.", Indian Medicinal Plants, New York, NY: Springer New York, p. 1, doi:10.1007/978-0-387-70638-2_697, ISBN 978-0-387-70637-5
- ^ a b López, M. Laura (2017-07-29). "Archaeobotany in central Argentina: macro- and microscopic remains at several archaeological sites from early Late Holocene to early colonial times (3,000–250 bp)". Vegetation History and Archaeobotany. 27 (1): 219–228. doi:10.1007/s00334-017-0627-x. hdl:11336/49646. ISSN 0939-6314. S2CID 134250975.
- ^ Houghton, P.J.; Manby, J. (March 1985). "Medicinal plants of the Mapuche". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 13 (1): 89–103. doi:10.1016/0378-8741(85)90063-7. ISSN 0378-8741. PMID 3990317.
- ^ Gunckel, H. (1959). "Nombres Indigenas Relacionados con la Flora Chilena". Boletin de Filologia, Universidad de Chile. 2: 191–327.
- ^ Berihuete-Azorín, Marian (September 2013). "First archaeobotanical approach to plant use among Selknam hunter-gatherers (Tierra del Fuego, Argentina)". Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences. 5 (3): 255–266. doi:10.1007/s12520-013-0137-4. ISSN 1866-9557. S2CID 129314115.
- ^ Berihuete M, Caruso L, Mansur ME, Massaccesi G, Mensua C, Piqué R (2009) El aprovechamiento de los recursos vegetales entre los Selknam de Tierra del Fuego (Argentina), una aproximación etnoarqueológica. In: Capparelli A, Chevalier A, Piqué R (eds) La alimentación en la América precolombina y colonial: una aproximación interdisciplinar. CSIC, Madrid, pp 21–36