Pronouncing Orthography

In 1864, Pronouncing Orthography was released as a simplified version of traditional English orthography to help children learn to read more quickly and easily; it became widely adopted by the United States public school system and incorporated into most basal reading schemes of the time. It aimed to improve literacy education by eliminating the irregularities of conventional English orthography and adhering to the alphabetic principle, wherein every letter represented a specific sound. This allowed children to read words by combining elementary sounds using phonics.

Cover – Leigh's Pronouncing Edition of Hillard's Primer

William Torrey Harris promoted Pronouncing Orthography after its invention by Dr Edwin Leigh who was inspired by another orthography called Phonotypy. This method resulted in children learning to read approximately 12 months faster than with traditional English orthography.

Children who used this method became self-reliant, diligent, and happy learners. When they transitioned back to traditional English orthography, they were better at spelling and became logical and analytical thinkers instead of relying on learning by rote. Teachers who used the method preferred it over conventional teaching.

Etymology

Although Pronouncing Orthography was the formal name of the new orthography, publishers and educationists recognised that many people did not know what an orthography was; consequently, it was known by many different names, including: - Leigh Print, Leigh's Phonetic Type, Leigh's Phonetic Method, Leigh's Pronouncing Edition of... after Dr Edwin Leigh, who devised the new orthography. It was also sometimes known as Phonetic Orthography.

Purpose

Example Page of Franklin First Reader - Leigh's Pronouncing Edition

Pronouncing Orthography was used to teach literacy; children were taught to read and write in a phonemic orthography and then transitioned to conventional English orthography. The concept originated when a predecessor, orthography, English Phonotypic Alphabet aka Phonotypy, was trialled to teach literacy and promote orthographic reform. Surprisingly, the newly literate transitioned effortlessly to conventional English, so the pedagogical theory developed that the best way to teach literacy was through an interim phonemic orthography. To this purpose, many orthographies have been developed and trialled, but only three have been widely adopted by public school systems, and these are: - Phonotypy (1845), Pronouncing Orthography (1864) and the Initial Teaching Alphabet (1960).

↓English

↓Phonotypic

↓Alphabet

↓(1845)

↓Pronouncing

↓Orthography

↓(1864)

↓Initial

↓Teaching

↓Alphabet

↓(1960)

│

1825

│

1850

│

1875

│

1900

│

1925

│

1950

│

1975

Timeline for Transitional English Orthographies Used for Teaching Literacy by Year

Background

Pronouncing Orthography - Vowel Letters and Sounds

Causes of poor literacy

The idea that the phonemic irregularity of the English language was a major cause of the poor levels of literacy in the English-speaking world had been well established in the mid-19th century by works such as Alexander John Ellis's treatise Plea for Phonetic Spelling, or the Necessity of Orthographic Reform, in 1848. Dr Edwin Leigh himself published a report quantifying the levels of illiteracy in the United States, which he used to advocate for his Pronouncing Orthography.

Precedent

Dr Edwin Leigh enthusiastically adopted Phonotypy as soon as it was published, so in 1946, he taught his daughter to read using Phonotypy; then, in 1949, he taught a class of fugitive slaves in Boston, which led him to set up the Boston phonetic school in 1950 which he used as a springboard to introduce phonetic teaching into the schools of Somerville, Massachusetts. In 1959, he used Phonotypy in evening classes to teach illiterate adults in St Louis, Missouri, where he tried unsuccessfully to introduce Phonotypy into the public school system.

Successor

Pronouncing Orthography - 29 Consonant Letters and their Sounds

Leigh was convinced of the efficacy of Phonotypy as a tool to teach literacy but realised that parents, teachers and school district officials were sceptical as they could not read the writing used by their children. Leigh was aware that Phonotypy had been designed for a multiplicity of purposes, but it was never designed to be a transitory mechanism towards literacy. Leigh reasoned that a much simpler interim teaching orthography was needed to improve literacy, which closely resembled standard English orthography for acceptance. Consequently, Leigh spent 20 years designing and refining his own interim teaching orthography.

Introduction

Leigh published his design of Pronouncing Orthography in a pamphlet in 1864, which he then promoted in learned education journals and through touring lectures. Leigh trialled the orthography in a school within his own school district of St Louis in 1866 and published the successful results. Gradually, publishers of the popular basal reading schemes released versions of their reading books in Pronouncing Orthography in tandem with school districts adopting the method, who in return vouched for its success in their annual reports.

Teaching materials

Basal reading schemes

Reading was taught in the United States of America during the mid-19th century using popular basal reading schemes consisting of primers & readers. The majority of which were re-published in Leigh's Pronouncing Orthography, and are listed below: -

Author	Co-Author	Editor	Title	Year	View	Cite
G.S. Hillard	-	E. Leigh	Hillard's Primer. Edited in Pronouncing Orthography.	1866	Link
G.S. Hillard	L.J. Campbell	E. Leigh	Leigh's Hillard's Second Reader, in Pronouncing Orthography	1868	-
G.S. Hillard	L.J. Campbell	E. Leigh	Franklin Primer or First Reader - Leigh's Pronouncing Edition	1873	Link
G.S. Hillard	L.J. Campbell	E. Leigh	Franklin Second Reader - Leigh's Pronouncing Edition	1873	Link
-	-	E. Leigh	The Graded First Reader. Edited in Pronouncing Orthography.	1874
-	-	E. Leigh	The Graded Second Reader. Edited in [Leigh's] pronouncing orthography.	1875
J.R. Edwards	-	E. Leigh	Analytical First Reader. Edited in Pronouncing Orthography.	1864	-
F.A. March	-	E. Leigh	March's A-B-C book	1881	-
W.H. McGuffey	-	E. Leigh	Leigh's McGuffey's New Primary Reader in Pronouncing Orthography	1864	-
W.H. McGuffey	-	E. Leigh	Leigh's McGuffey's New Eclectic Primer in Pronouncing Orthography.	1868	-
L.B. Monroe	-	E. Leigh	The First Reader. Edited in Pronouncing Orthography by Edwin Leigh.	1864
Y. Sargent	-	E. Leigh	Sargent's Standard Primer. Edited in Pronouncing Orthography.	1866	-
C.W. Sanders	-	E. Leigh	Leigh's Sanders' Union Pictorial Primer, in Pronouncing Orthography	1868	-
C.W. Sanders	-	E. Leigh	Leigh's Sanders' Union Reader, Number one, for Primary Schools and Families	1868	-
J.M. Watson	-	E. Leigh	Leigh's Watson's National School Primer in Pronouncing Orthography.	1867	-
J.M. Watson	-	E. Leigh	Independent 1st-6th Reader. Edited in Pronouncing Orthography by Edwin Leigh.	1867	-

Bible

In the mid-19th century, the bible was extensively read by children in schools; as such, Leigh translated two gospels into Pronouncing Orthography: -

• The Gospel According to Luke, reprinted in Pronouncing Orthography by Edwin Leigh; - Link
• The Gospel According to John, reprinted in Pronouncing Orthography by Edwin Leigh; - Link

Teaching methods

From the Teacher's Notes Hillard's Primer in Pronouncing Orthography (1877), a description of the Phonics aka Phonetic Teaching Methods.

Leigh simply converted existing basal reading schemes to Pronouncing Orthography for expediency. The existing basal schemes were orientated towards various methods, including the phonetic and word methods or combinations of the two. Hence, he was agnostic about how teachers taught literacy as he presumed the benefits of phonetic understanding would be secured by simply using his orthography regardless of how it was taught.

Conversely, the principal advocates of Pronouncing Orthography, superintendents William Torrey Harris of St Louis and John Philbrick of Boston, were both adamant proponents of the phonetic method; they merely considered Pronouncing Orthography as a useful tool in support of phonetic teaching. Other school districts such as New York, followed Leigh's guidance and allowed Pronouncing Orthography to be taught with different methods, but even here, by 1872–73, it was concluded by assistant superintendent Calkins that the phonetic method was superior.

Advantages

Cover of Franklin's Primer or First Reader - Leigh's Pronouncing Edition (1873)

Over the period of its usage, Pronouncing Orthography was assessed in education journals, and in reports of the American public school system, where the following advantages were documented: -

1. Children learnt to read at least six to twelve months faster.
2. Children were better spellers after transitioning to conventional English orthography
3. Children were happier as they gained independence from teachers and became self-reliant
4. Children spoke with clear articulation and more eloquently after using Pronouncing Orthography
5. Teachers who had tried Pronouncing Orthography preferred it to conventional orthography.
6. Most importantly of all, children learnt to think logically. William Torey Harris described this further: -

It is desirable that the child who is just commencing his education should have something consistent and logical ,methodical and philosophical to employ his mind upon rather than something without either analogy or system for these first impressions have the power to change and fix the whole bent of the mind...[Superintendent William Torrey Harris]

The 1878 Boston headmaster survey demonstrated that as schools gained experience of using Pronouncing Orthography so they became in-favour of its use.

Boston Headmaster Survey of Pronouncing Orthography

Headmaster Survey of 1878	In-Favour	Undecided	Opposed
> 5 Years Experience of Pronouncing Orthography	15	0	0
< 2 Years Experience of Pronouncing Orthography	1	3	1

2.5

5

7.5

10

12.5

15

Experienced Headmasters

Inexperienced Headmasters

•   In-Favour
•   Undecided
•   Opposed

Vienna Exposition of 1873 by Franz Alt when Dr Leigh won the Medal of Progress for Pronouncing Orthography

Awards

At the Vienna Exposition of 1873, Dr Edwin Leigh was awarded the Medal of Progress as a recognition of merit for his invention of Pronouncing Orthography.

Design philosophy

Phonemic orthography

As with all phonemic orthographies, the principal objective of Leigh's new orthography was to enable children to correctly convert written words to speech regardless of whether the child was pre-acquainted with a particular word or not. A child can quickly and easily learn to read by knowing a consistent set of rules that convert letters to sounds. In contrast, standard English orthography's myriad rules and exceptions made this difficult.

Ball Word in Lesson II Hillard's Primer edited in Pronouncing Orthography. Exemplifies the use of letters to signal letter sounds.

Familiarity with standard orthography

Secondly, Leigh wanted to avoid prejudice similar to that encountered against phonotypy in St. Louis by making his new orthography familiar to standard English orthography, so the Latin alphabet and spelling conventions were fully retained. Instead, Leigh introduced phonetic regularity by making silent letters in words faint, so children were aware they should be ignored. Leigh also subtly embellished other letters so children were explicitly aware of the sound made by those vocal letters. In this way, Leigh hoped that the familiarity of the new orthography would persuade the detractors to accept the new orthography whilst children would still see through this veneer to read with phonetic clarity.

Position for Eloquent Reading - Page 8 - First Reader by Lewis B. Monroe

Elocution

The desire to speak eloquently and, in particular, to have correct received pronunciation was common in Britain and America during the 19th century, with the study of English orthoepy at its zenith. One feature of phonetic orthographies was that they converted written words into a single consistent form of pronunciation, which would often differ from the pronunciations used by people with different accents or regional dialects. In the 19th century, this feature of phonetic orthographies was considered a great benefit as children would learn new words in received pronunciation. To this end, Leigh utilised the pronouncing dictionaries of John Walker & Benjamin Humphrey Smart, two of the leading orthoepists of the time to ensure his orthography resulted in correct pronunciation. To emphasise this objective, Leigh called his new orthography, Pronouncing Orthography.

Writing

Controversially, Leigh separated learning to read from learning to write; he described his position in his report to the Boston school committee: -

Deliberately duplicated and triplicated graphemes of Pronouncing Orthography enabling resemblance to conventional English orthography.

As to script, I stated my own conviction that it has no proper connection with learning to read and my desire to know from the writing master whether the habits formed by such writing of such words on the slate by so young learners will not have a bad influence upon their future handwriting and whether they will not acquire the art better at a later period and by exercises designed specially for the acquisition of good habits and skill in penmanship....[Dr Edwin Leigh]

Leigh also had no hand-written script versions of his letters because he relied on small, subtle embellishments to letters which were identifiable in print but unrecognisable in children's hand-writing. Leigh suggested children should learn to read using his orthography and then transition to standard English orthography, where they would learn to write.

Compromises

In reality, Leigh's orthography did not lend itself to writing because of the asymmetrical application of the alphabetical principle. So every letter (grapheme) equated to a single sound (phoneme), allowing children to read with absolute certainty, but every sound (phoneme) equated to a multitude of possible letters (graphemes), meaning children would not know with certainty how to write an unfamiliar word. This was necessary to keep words written in Pronouncing Orthography resembling those in conventional English orthography.

Segmentation of sounds

Letter sounds which occur less than once in every four thousand utterances, shown in Pronouncing Orthography

Leigh considered the sequence in which Pronouncing Orthography could be taught when he segmented letter sounds into four utterance categories: -

• Category I - Letter sounds most commonly uttered (99% of instances)
• Category II - Letter sounds which occur once in every two hundred utterances (0.5% of instances)
• Category III - Letter sounds which occur once in every thousand utterances (0.1% of instances)
• Category IV - Letter sounds which occur once in every four thousand utterances (0.025% of instances)

He suggested avoiding teaching category IV sounds using Pronouncing Orthography and instead waiting until the child has transitioned to conventional orthography, whilst the other categories are taught in sequence.

Discontinuation

Pronouncing Orthography started to gradually fall into disuse in the later part of the 1870s and into the 1880s for two main reasons: -

Prejudice

Most people initially learnt to read in early childhood. Subsequently, they read naturally through automaticity in reading, so by adulthood, they were unaware of the complex and abstract nature of learning literacy. Instead, most people had a preconceived notion that learning to read should be a simplistic activity based on reading aloud basic primers with children. When faced with an alternate orthography that many found bewildering and explanations from educationalists they could not comprehend, many people became adamantly opposed, often using anti-intellectual arguments against the evidence.

Illustration of teaching at a Boston Infant school,1829

Discontinuance at Boston

In 1879, the new Superintendent, Samuel Elliott, withdrew Leigh's Pronouncing Orthography, documenting his prejudicial reasons: -

If the child's home is one which has its books, the use of them will not prepare him for the primer which we put into his hands. It is unlike the nursery stories which he has been looking at, if not reading; it has a strange look, particularly on the inside, where characters he has never seen stare at him out of nearly every line... but the strangeness of any book at all is almost stupefying...[Superintendent Samuel Eliot]

Discontinuance at New York

In New York, there was external pressure from outside the school system from people who did not understand the concept of Pronouncing Orthography and considered it complex, expensive and an unnecessary ornamental branch of education. The New York Board of Education bowed to this pressure despite their previous acknowledgement of the superiority of Pronouncing Orthography.

The book-cover for "The Sentence Method of Teaching Reading, Writing, and Spelling: A Manual for Teachers" republished – 18 July 2023 by George L Farnham (Author) published by Legare Street Press

Pedagogical challenge

The prevailing pedagogical theory that teaching literacy was best achieved through using an intermediate phonemic orthography was challenged by an educationalist named George L. Farnham, who had sponsored the use of Phonotypy to teach literacy in Syracuse, New York. Upon its initial success, he became a staunch advocate but subsequently noticed the main deficiency in the method; this was that children learned to read too quickly and failed to comprehend meaning. To address this perceived problem, Farnham invented the Sentence Method, which he published in 1881, and widely promoted in the learned educational journals of the time. In modern times, the method has been completely discredited.

Teaching usage

Leigh's Pronunciation Orthography became widely adopted in America in the late 1860s. The American public school system was publicly funded so was obliged to keep records, consequently, some public school boards published a detailed account of the usage of Pronouncing Orthography, in particular: - St Louis, Missouri, Boston, New York and Washington.

St Louis, Missouri

Tabular View Showing the Improvement in Reading Progression from Using Pronouncing Orthography

Dr Edwin Leigh was closely associated with the St Louis public school system, having served as a teacher for seven years. In 1866, Leigh trialled his Pronouncing Orthography in Clay School, where Miss Helen Smith, a recently qualified teacher, carried out a controlled experiment in which she taught two classes, one in pronouncing orthography and the other in standard orthography, allowing a like-for-like comparison. The result was spectacular with children taught in Pronouncing Orthography pulling 3 quarters ahead of those taught in conventional orthography.

William Torrey Harris had been the principal at Clay School during the trial and was later promoted to superintendent of St Louis public schools. Having seen the results of the new method first-hand, he reported upon the marked improvement in children's articulation and spelling and the fact they learnt to read quickly using this method. Based on this success, the St. Louis Board of Education sanctioned the city-wide adoption of the new phonetic system from the 1867–1868 academic year. Harris, summarised the effect of this decision: -

The introduction of Leigh's Phonetic System into all of the primary departments was followed by better results than could have been anticipated … the sequel showed that pupils taught by the new system were far in advance of those taught the same length of time by the old plan....[Superintendent William Torrey Harris]

Throughout his tenure as the Superintendent, Harris advocated for the superiority of Leigh's Pronouncing Orthography and the general advantage of phonetic teaching methods. In 1873, Harris reported that the new method had spread to the main cities of America: - New York, Washington and Boston, as well as other cities in the West. Subsequently, in response to ongoing enquiries from around the country, Harris published a full report on the method in 1877. Harris's successor, Edward Long, continued to use Leigh's method but was not a vocal advocate; in 1884, he stopped reporting on the methods and materials used to teach children literacy, so it is not known when Pronouncing Orthography stopped being used but was definitively used for at least 16 years in St Louis.

Boston, Massachusetts

Boston Public School is shown in the annual report of 1877, which published the closing report on the trial of Pronouncing Orthography.

Dr Edwin Leigh also had close associations with the Boston school system. In the 1867–68 academic year, the Boston Board of Education introduced Leigh's phonic system of teaching the first steps to reading. Some of Boston's teachers had already become acquainted with the method through their teacher training, so they immediately adopted the system and started to report excellent results from this first use.

John Philbrick was the Superintendent of Boston's public schools. He recognised both the importance and the difficulty of initially learning to read. Philbrick strongly advocated phonetics as the best method to teach literacy to children and considered Leigh's print an ingenious contrivance for facilitating the teaching of this method. In 1870, Philbrick described the extraordinary results from using the new method: -

Such results in teaching the first steps in reading I had never before witnessed in any school whatever, and they certainly afford strong evidence in favor of the new pronouncing type. I am happy to be able to put in this evidence in favor of the pronouncing type which Dr. Leigh has taken so much pains to perfect and make known....[Superintendent John Philbrick]

Philbrick continued to advocate for Leigh's Pronouncing Orthography until he relinquished his position as Superintendent to Samuel Elliott in the academic year 1877–78. In his final Superintendent's report (1877–78), Philbrick published an influential closing report, summarising the outcomes from using Pronouncing Orthography.

New York, New York

Leigh's Pronouncing Orthography was trialled in some New York schools in the academic year 1869–1870. The following year the trial was hailed a success, and all New York schools were permitted to adopt the scheme with their choosing. The Superintendent and his assistants continued to report on the success of Leigh's method in the subsequent years.

Washington, District of Columbia

In 1871, The board of trustees of Washington public schools initiated a new course of study where Leigh's Pronouncing Orthography through Hillard's Primer & Second Readers were mandated along with Leigh's Sound Charts.

References

PAMPHLETS

• Leigh, Edwin (1864-01-01). "Pronouncing Orthography" (PDF). Library of Congress: 1–13. LCCN 11016110 – via The Phonics Page.
• Leigh, Edwin (1869-01-01). "Pronouncing Orthography, Results Of Its Use. - St. Louis". Spelling Reform Pamphlet: 1–8 – via Internet Archive.

JSTOR JOURNALS

• Leigh, Edwin (1865-08-01). "Pronouncing Orthography". The Massachusetts Teacher (1858-1871). 18 (8): 254–256. JSTOR 45026230 – via JSTOR.
• Leigh, Edwin (1878-09-26). "The Boston Masters and the Leigh Type". National Journal of Education. 8 (12): 195. JSTOR 44957525 – via JSTOR.
• Weightman, E (1878-10-03). "The Leigh type in Washington, for foreign-born and native children". National Journal of Education. 8 (13): 211. JSTOR 44957261 – via JSTOR.
• Stearns, Josiah (1868-12-01). "Dr. Leigh's Phonetic Printing". The Massachusetts Teacher (1858-1871). 21 (12): 458–461. JSTOR 45026673 – via JSTOR.
• Lonfellow, Mrs A.; Cragin, Miss L. (1876-02-19). "Dr. Leigh's Phonetic System". New England Journal of Education. 3 (8): 89. JSTOR 44765491 – via JSTOR.
• Kriege, Matilda (1876-10-07). "The Pronouncing Orthography and Froebel's System". New England Journal of Education. 4 (13): 149. JSTOR 44766389 – via JSTOR.
• Harris, W. (1878-02-14). "Advantages of the New Method or Spelling". National Journal of Education. 7 (7): 101. JSTOR 44960280 – via JSTOR.
• Soldan, Lewis; Leigh, Edwin (1878-09-19). "Pronouncing orthography, and script". National Journal of Education. 8 (11): 179. JSTOR 44957189 – via JSTOR.
• Farnham, George L. (1880-12-09). "Primary Reading; - The Sentence Method (Part I)". National Journal of Education. 12 (23): 392–394. JSTOR 44803446 – via JSTOR.
• Farnham, George L. (1880-12-16). "Primary Reading; - The Sentence Method (Part II)". National Journal of Education. 12 (24): 407–408. JSTOR 44803563 – via JSTOR.
• "Medals of the Vienna Exhibition". American Journal of Numismatics. 8 (2): 43. 1873-10-01. JSTOR 44803563 – via JSTOR.

BOOKS

• James Pitman; St John, John (1969). "Chapter 6 - Four centuries of spelling and alphabetic reform". Alphabets & Reading (1st ed.). Great Britain: Pitman. pp. 75–115. ISBN 0273433431.
• Downing, John (1967). "II - A Review of Previous Investigations (3) Field Trials or Demonstrations of Reformed Writing Systems". Evaluating the Initial Teaching Alphabet (1st ed.). Great Britain: Cassell. pp. 54–63.
• Alexander John Ellis (1848). Plea for Phonetic Spelling: or the Necessity of Orthographic Reform (2nd ed.). London: Fred Pitman.
• Withers, George (1874). The English Language Spelled as Pronounced. Germany: Verlag. ISBN 9783368810535.
• Farnham, George (1874). The sentence method of teaching reading, writing, and spelling : A manual for teachers. Syracuse, New York: C. W. Bardeen. ISBN 9783368810535. LCCN 06038681.

PRIMERS

• Hillard, George Stillman (1866). Leigh, Edwin (ed.). Hillard's Primer. Edited in Pronouncing Orthography. New York & Chicago: Taintor Brothers, Merrill and Company. LCCN 12008258.
• Hillard, George Stillman; Campbell, Loomis Joseph (1868). Leigh, Edwin (ed.). Leigh's Hillard's Second Reader, in Pronouncing Orthography. Boston: Brewer and Tileston. LCCN 12008269. OCLC 2360698.
• Hillard, George Stillman; Campbell, Loomis Joseph (1873). Leigh, Edwin (ed.). Franklin Primer or First Reader - Leigh's Pronouncing Edition. New York: Taintor Brothers, Merrill, and Company.
• Hillard, George Stillman; Campbell, Loomis Joseph (1873). Leigh, Edwin (ed.). Franklin Second Reader - Leigh's Pronouncing Edition. New York: Taintor Brothers, Merrill, and Company. LCCN 12008053.
• Leigh, Edwin, ed. (1874). The Graded First Reader. Edited in Pronouncing Orthography (PDF). New York and Chicago: Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor and Company. LCCN 12008037.
• Leigh, Edwin, ed. (1875). The Graded Second Reader. Edited in [Leigh's] pronouncing orthography (PDF). New York and Chicago: Ivison, Blakeman, Taylor and Company.
• Edwards, J. Russell (1864). Leigh, Edwin (ed.). Analytical First Reader. Edited in Pronouncing Orthography. New York and Chicago: Taintor Brothers, Merrill, and Company.
• March, Francis Andrew (1881). March's A-B-C book. Boston: Ginn & Heath. LCCN 10018470. OCLC 4893294.
• McGuffey, William Holmes (1864). Leigh, Edwin (ed.). Leigh's McGuffey's New Primary Reader in Pronouncing Orthography. Cincinnati: Wilson, Hinkle and Company. LCCN 12008258.
• McGuffey, William Holmes (1868). Leigh, Edwin (ed.). Leigh's McGuffey's New Eclectic Primer in Pronouncing Orthography. Cincinnati: Wilson, Hinkle and Company. LCCN 12006522.
• Monroe, Lewis B. (1864). Leigh, Edwin (ed.). The First Reader. Edited in Pronouncing Orthography by Edwin Leigh. Philadelphia: Cowperthwait and Company.
• Sargent, Epes (1866). Leigh, Edwin (ed.). Sargent's Standard Primer. Edited in Pronouncing Orthography. Boston: John L. Shorey. LCCN 12006522.
• Sanders, Charles Walton (1868). Leigh, Edwin (ed.). Leigh's Sanders' union pictorial primer, in pronouncing orthography. New York: Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman and company. LCCN 11020272.
• Sanders, Charles Walton (1868). Leigh, Edwin (ed.). Leigh's Sanders' Union Reader, Number one, for Primary Schools and Families. New York: Ivison, Phinney, Blakeman and company. LCCN 12006523.
• Watson., James Madison (1867). Leigh, Edwin (ed.). Leigh's Watson's National School Primer in Pronouncing Orthography. New York and Chicago: A. S. Barnes and Company. LCCN 12006491.
• Watson, J. Madison (1867). Leigh, Edwin (ed.). Independent First Reader. Containing the most valuable features of the word system, object lessons, and phonetics; and choice tales, fables, etc. in monosyllables. Edited in Pronouncing Orthography by Edwin Leigh. New York and Chicago: A. S. Barnes and Company. LCCN 11032710.

SCHOOL COMMITTEE - BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS

[Massachusetts public school system published detailed records of the initial adoption and later discontinuance of Leigh's Pronunciation Orthography between 1867 and 1879].

• School Committee of the City of Boston (Barnard Capen - Secretary); Philbrick, Superintendent John D. (1869-01-01). Annual Report of the School Committee of the City of Boston 1867 (Report). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill City Printers.
• School Committee of the City of Boston (Barnard Capen - Secretary); Philbrick, Superintendent John D. (1869-01-01). Annual Report of the School Committee of the City of Boston 1868 (Report). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill City Printers. p. 141.
• School Committee of the City of Boston (Barnard Capen - Secretary); Philbrick, Superintendent John D. (1870-01-01). Annual Report of the School Committee of the City of Boston 1869 (Report). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill City Printers. p. 171.
• School Committee of the City of Boston (Barnard Capen - Secretary); Philbrick, Superintendent John D. (1871-01-01). Annual Report of the School Committee for the City of Boston 1870 (Report). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill City Printers. p. 147.
• School Committee of the City of Boston (Barnard Capen - Secretary); Philbrick, Superintendent John D. (1872-01-01). Annual Report of the School Committee for the City of Boston 1871 (Report). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill City Printers. pp. 7–9.
• School Committee of the City of Boston (Barnard Capen - Secretary); Philbrick, Superintendent John D. (1873-01-01). Annual Report of the School Committee for the City of Boston 1872 (Report). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill City Printers. pp. 46–47, 94.
• School Committee of the City of Boston (Barnard Capen - Secretary); Philbrick, Superintendent John D. (1874-01-01). Annual Report of the School Committee of the City of Boston 1873 (Report). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill City Printers. p. 84.
• School Committee of the City of Boston (Barnard Capen - Secretary); Philbrick, Superintendent John D. (1875-01-01). Annual Report of the School Committee of the City of Boston 1874 (Report). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill City Printers.
• School Committee of the City of Boston (Barnard Capen - Secretary); Philbrick, Superintendent John D. (1876-01-01). Annual Report of the School Committee of the City of Boston 1875 (Report). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill City Printers. p. 77.
• School Committee of the City of Boston (Barnard Capen - Secretary); Philbrick, Superintendent John D. (1877-01-01). Annual Report of the School Committee of the City of Boston 1876 (Report). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill City Printers. pp. 251, 256.
• School Committee of the City of Boston (Geo. Smith - Secretary); Philbrick, Superintendent John D. (1878-01-01). Annual Report of the School Committee of the City of Boston 1877 (Report). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill City Printers. pp. 55–64. Closing statement by Dr Edwin Leigh of progress made in the method
• School Committee of the City of Boston (George A. Smith - Secretary); Eliot, Superintendent Samuel (1879-01-01). Annual Report of the School Committee of the City of Boston 1878 (Report). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill City Printers. pp. 257–260. Suggestion for the Course of Study for Primary Schools - Reading
• School Committee of the City of Boston (Phineas Bates - Secretary); Eliot, Superintendent Samuel (1880-01-01). Annual Report of the School Committee of the City of Boston 1879 (Report). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill City Printers. pp. 10–13. Philosophical reasons for dis-continuing usage of Leigh's Pronunciation Orthography as espoused by new Superintendent Samuel Eliot

BOARD OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS - ST. LOUIS, MISSOURI

[Missouri public school system published detailed records of the initial adoption but reporting of Leigh's method lapsed after 17 years; it was known to be used between 1867 and 1883].

• Year 1 (1866–67); - Board of Public Schools; Assistant Superintendent William Torrey Harris (1868-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1st, 1867 (Report). Vol. 13. St. Louis: Missouri Democrat Book and Job Printing House. pp. 56–58. Reading - In this connection also should be mentioned the phonetic modification of the alphabet by Dr Leigh. The introduction of this system at the Clay School the use of a primer printed in modified type proved to be productive of the most satisfactory results The class that finished it made very rapid progress in learning to spell in the common orthography after they were transferred to the ordinary type in the First Reader.
• Year 2 (1867–68); - Board of Public Schools; Superintendent William Torrey Harris (1869-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1st, 1868 (Report). Vol. 14. St. Louis: George Knapp & Co. Printers & Binders. p. 97. during the past year there is little to be added to what was said in the report of last year The introduction of Leigh's Phonetic System into all of the primary departments was followed by better results than could have been anticipated The primary teachers exhibited a commendable degree of energy and persistency in mastering the best method of teaching it and the sequel showed that pupils taught by the new system were far in advance of those taught the same length of time by the old plan
• Year 3 (1868–69); - Board of Public Schools; Superintendent William Torrey Harris (1870-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1, 1869 (Report). Vol. 15. St. Louis: Missouri Democrat Book and Job Printing House. pp. 95–99. Leigh's Phonetic System - A four page essay details the arguments for a rational phonetic method for learning to read
• Year 4 (1869–70); - Board of Public Schools; Soldan, Assistant Superintendent Louis; Superintendent William Torrey Harris (1871-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1, 1870 (Report). Vol. 16. St. Louis: Democrat Lithograph and Printing Company. pp. 25, 165–166. The Phonetic system of teaching reading now used in all our primary grades is better adapted to the grasp of the childish understanding and gives the teacher so much more power over the youngest pupils that it will be safe to admit children of five years of age. Leigh's phonetic system of which I spoke at length last year continues to give the same satisfaction in this its fourth year of trial.
• Year 5 (1870–71); - Board of Public Schools; Superintendent William Torrey Harris (1872-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1, 1871 (Report). Vol. 17. St. Louis: Democrat Lithograph and Printing Company. pp. 182–184. What I have said before regarding the success of Leigh's Phonetic or Pronouncing orthography I desire to repeat here with the additional force that new years of trial bring with them The time saved the clearness of enunciation the good spelling the strengthened intellect quickened by analytic training all these count in its favour as much as formerly.
• Year 6 (1871–72); - Board of Public Schools; Superintendent William Torrey Harris (1873-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1, 1872 (Report). Vol. 18. St. Louis: Democrat Lithograph and Printing Company. pp. 13, 25, 151. Leigh's method of teaching reading continues to be as a success as in former years It saves half the time in the earliest years and secures better spelling and better standing of what is read It makes reading a pleasure to child and does much to influence him to read at home enabling the pupil to learn to read by analyzing words their elements and to combine them again from their elements
• Year 7 (1872–73); - Board of Public Schools; Superintendent William Torrey Harris (1874-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1, 1873 (Report). Vol. 19. St. Louis: Democrat Lithograph and Printing Company. pp. 182–184. I am fully convinced that one half of the time usually spent in learning to read by the word method may be saved by the use of this system Its success in Burlington Peoria and other cities of the West in Washington New York and Boston go to prove that our enthusiasm over its use here is not the result of prejudice.
• Year 8 (1873–74); - Board of Public Schools; Soldan, Principal Louis (1875-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1, 1874 (Report). Vol. 20. St. Louis: Democrat Lithograph and Printing Company. p. 53. Teacher Training in Leigh's Phonetics. Printing of Phonetic characters on the blackboard In addition to the above work the forms and sounds of the phonetic characters as found in Leigh's Phonetic Primer also teaching exercises upon this subject Methods of teaching reading.
• Year 9 (1874–75); - Board of Public Schools; Superintendent William Torrey Harris (1876-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1, 1875 (Report). Vol. 21. St. Louis: Democrat Lithograph and Printing Company. pp. cxc. Text books used in the public schools, district schools, McGuffey's Leigh's Phonetic Primer, First Reader
• Year 10 (1875–76); - Board of Public Schools; Superintendent William Torrey Harris (1877-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1, 1876 (Report). Vol. 22. St. Louis: Slawson Printer.
• Year 11 (1876–77); - Board of Public Schools; Superintendent William Torrey Harris (1878-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1, 1877 (Report). Vol. 23. St. Louis: John J. Daly & Co. Printers. pp. 225–228. Primary Reading - A full report on Dr Edwin Leigh's Phonetic System
• Year 12 (1877–78); - Board of Public Schools; Superintendent William Torrey Harris (1879-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1, 1878 (Report). Vol. 24. St. Louis: Democrat Lithograph and Printing Company. p. 197. Text books used in the public schools, district schools, McGuffey's Leigh's Phonetic Primer, First Reader
• Year 13 (1878–79); - Board of Public Schools; Superintendent William Torrey Harris (1880-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1, 1879 (Report). Vol. 25. St. Louis: Democrat Lithograph and Printing Company. p. 262. In the St Louis schools the primary instruction is considered to be of especial importance By the use of the phonetic system of learning to read invented by Dr Edwin Leigh at least one year is saved in learning to read The method uses a modified alphabet so formed that each character has one sound only Each letter in this alphabet resembles the corresponding letter of the ordinary alphabet so nearly that the general appearance of the words is preserved and a transition to the ordinary type is found quite easy after half a year's work in the new alphabet
• NOTE: - William Torrey Harris was replaced as Superintendent by Edward H. Long in 1880; the subsequent Superintendent's reports confirm continued usage of Leigh's phonetic method until 1883, after which the granularity of the reporting is reduced, so it is not known when Leigh's Pronouncing Orthography eventually stopped being used.
• Year 17 (1882–83); - Board of Public Schools, Superintendent Edward; Long (1884-01-01). Annual Report of the Board of Directors of the St. Louis Public Schools, for the Year Ending August 1, 1883 (Report). Vol. 30. St. Louis: Nixon Jones Printing Company. p. 347. Text books used in the public schools, district schools, McGuffey's Leigh's Phonetic Primer, First Reader

BOARD OF EDUCATION - NEW YORK CITY & COUNTY

[New York public school system published detailed records of the initial adoption and later discontinuance of Leigh's Pronunciation Orthography between 1869 and 1876].

• Year 1 (1869–70); - Board of Education; Kiddle, Chief Superintendent Henry (1871-01-01). Twenty Ninth Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City And County of New York for the Year Ending 31st December 1870 (Report). Vol. 29. New York: New York Printing Company. pp. 150–151. The system invented by Dr Edwin Leigh which under the authority of the Board has been tried in several of the schools during the past year is designed to obviate all these difficulties and perplexities affording as it does by slight modifications in the ordinary forms of the letters a separate sign for every sound in the language The results of the experiments already made I think to be favorable to the merits and success of the system the pupils not only learning to read in a shorter time but to read more distinctly and fluently and what is even more important making the acquisition in a thoughtful and logical manner so that their common sense is never shocked by inconsistencies nor their natural intelligence baffled by arbitrary contradictions I have found too by my own examinations that the children having learned to read Dr Leigh's print pass without any difficulty or additional instruction or practice to ordinary print the customary forms of the words being so little affected by the slightly modified letters employed. These experiments will be continued so as to embrace one other grade at the close of which I will communicate the results in a special report to the Board. It is proper also to state that the teachers who have had charge of the classes undergoing this instruction are, I believe without exception, pleased with the results thus far attained.
• Year 2 (1870–71); - Board of Education; Kiddle, Chief Superintendent Henry (1872-01-01). Thirtieth Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City And County of New York for the Year Ending 31st December 1871 (Report). Vol. 30. New York: New York Printing Company. p. 217. The experiments in Dr Leigh's Pronouncing Orthography in progress at the time of the last report have been continued during the present year and the results have been very satisfactory. By recent action of your Board this method of teaching can now at the option of the Principals be used in all the schools and I trust that it will be more generally tried during the next year I feel convinced from the results already attained that it will prove the means of saving much valuable time both of teachers and pupils besides giving to the latter through their reading exercises far better mental training.
• Year 3 (1871–72); - Board of Education; Kiddle, Chief Superintendent Henry (1873-01-01). Thirty First Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City And County of New York for the Year Ending 31st December 1872 (Report). Vol. 31. New York: New York Printing Company. p. 201. In this connection I will add that Dr Leigh's system of phonetic instruction continues to be used successfully in the schools where it was first introduced also that several other schools have commenced the use of books printed in his type I am satisfied that a proper use of this pronouncing orthography would be at tended with beneficial results in all of our schools.
• Year 4 (1872–73); - Board of Education; Calkins, First Assistant Superintendent Norman (1874-01-01). Thirty Second Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City And County of New York for the Year Ending 31st December 1873 (Report). Vol. 32. New York: New York Printing Company. pp. 293–294. I am still of the opinion that a proper use of this print during at least the first year of learning to read would facilitate the progress of the pupils in this branch So far as I have been able to ascertain those teachers who make themselves sufficiently familiar with the characters used in it to write them readily on the blackboard prefer them to the other form of letters during the first steps in teaching reading.
• Year 5 - 6; - No commentary on Leigh's Pronouncing Orthography.
• Year 7 (1875–76); - Board of Education; Kiddle, Superintendent Henry (1877-01-01). Thirty Fifth Annual Report of the Board of Education of the City And County of New York for the Year Ending 31st December 1876 (Report). Vol. 35. New York: New York Printing Company. pp. 123–124. At the commencement of the year a change was however imperatively called for. It was the conviction of many that the course as then in operation was too complex and exacting and that it prescribed branches of study which consumed a large part of the time and efforts of the pupils without any adequate benefit The public mind had been influenced unfavorably toward our system in this respect the impression having become general that the cost of maintaining the public schools was unnecessarily increased by giving instruction in merely ornamental branches sometimes to the neglect of the more important ones The result of this agitation has been the entire revision of the course of instruction in the direction particularly of simplification and reduction and during the last four months the schools have been operating on the new basis…. In learning to read the children will not be permitted by the new course to waste their time in useless and impracticable phonetic lessons..

BOARD OF TRUSTEES of PUBLIC SCHOOLS - WASHINGTON

• (1870–71); -Board of Trustees of Public Schools (1871-01-01). Twenty-Fourth Report of the Board of Trustees of Public Schools of the City of Washington 1870-71 (Report). Vol. 24. Washington: City M Gill & Witherow Printers and Stereotypers. pp. 28, 228. Leigh's Sound Charts and his edition of Hillard's Primer and Second Reader are generally and should be exclusively used.
• (1871–72); -Board of Trustees of Public Schools; Wilson, Superintendent J. Ormond (1872-01-01). Twenty-Fifth Report of the Board of Trustees of Public Schools of the City of Washington 1871-72 (Report). Vol. 25. Washington: City M Gill & Witherow Printers and Stereotypers. pp. 42–43. In the New Course of Study Dr Leigh's Sound Charts and his edition of Hillard's Primer or First Reader and of the Second Reader are required to be used exclusively. This is an excellent feature, about ten years ago with many misgivings one of these charts was placed in the hands of a skilful Primary teacher for trial. There were doubts in regard to the method of teaching reading by sounds. Everyone was confident that the transition from the phonetic form of print to the common would prove to be a most serious objection, and it was moreover quite certain that the new system could be taught only by an expert who had been specially trained for the purpose. Contrary to all expectations, however, the first year's trial was by no means a failure, and the use of these charts by any of the teachers who desired it was authorized by the Board from that time to the present there has been a gradual increase in their use brought about entirely by the evident superiority of the system. Teachers of ordinary intelligence without any special instruction readily take up this method of teaching, and it has been found that pupils thus taught can thereby save six months of their valuable time that the reading of these pupils is decidedly superior and that the transition to the common form of print is without difficulty and the work of but a week I believe that in commencing to learn our language the phonetic system is the best and that the very ingenious form of presenting it invented by Dr Leigh is destined to come into general use.
• (1871–72); -Board of Trustees of Public Schools (1873-01-01). Twenty-SixthReport of the Board of Trustees of Public Schools of the City of Washington 1872-73 (Report). Vol. 26. Washington: City M Gill & Witherow Printers and Stereotypers. pp. 202, 207. Leigh's Sound Charts and his edition of Hillard's Primer and Second Reader are generally and should be exclusively used.
• (1872–74); -Board of Trustees of Public Schools (1875-01-01). Twenty-Seventh Report of the Board of Trustees of Public Schools of the City of Washington 1873-74 (Report). Vol. 27. Washington: City M Gill & Witherow Printers and Stereotypers. p. 179. Leigh's Sound Charts and his edition of Hillard's Primer and Second Reader are generally and should be exclusively used.
• Special Report - Barnard (Commissioner of Education), Henry (1870-06-13). Special Report of the Commissioner of Education on the Condition and Improvement of Public Schools in the District of Columbia (Report). Washington: Washington Government Printing Office. p. 144. ..but there are many adults as well as children whose school attendance has been prematurely abridged or entirely neglected and who cannot be gathered into the regular day school … and whose ability to read the language should be facilitated by textbooks and methods different from those in general use like those of Dr Leigh.

SCHOOL COMMITTEE - WALTHAM, MASSACHUSETTS

• Hill, Chairman Reverend Thomas (1853-06-01). Annual Report of the School Committee of Waltham 1853 (Report). Boston. ...It has been proved in repeated experiments that if a child, upon first learning letters, is taught the Phonetic Alphabet, and is confined to Phonetic books for the first 6-8 months of schooling, he will at the end of his first year's schooling read common print and spell in common spelling better than children ordinarily do, at the end of 4-5 years of schooling.

GOSPELS

• Luke the Evangelist (1877). Leigh, Dr Edwin (ed.). Gospel According to St Luke, edited in pronouncing orthography (1st ed.). New York: Edwin Leigh.
• John the Apostle (1873). Leigh, Dr Edwin (ed.). Gospel According to St John, , edited in pronouncing orthography (1st ed.). New York: Edwin Leigh.

CATALOGUE

• Venezky, Richard L. (1990). Kesaris, Paul L.; Massant, Eric J.; Imholtz, Jr, August A. (eds.). American Primers, Guide to the Microfiche Collection (PDF) (1st ed.). Bethesda, Maryland: University Publications of America. ISBN 1-55655-203-3.

THESIS

• Bothe, Albert (1967-12-01). Nineteenth-century experiments with transitional reading media (PDF) (Thesis). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University. Retrieved 2024-01-20.
• Reeder, Rudolph (1900-05-01). The historical development of school readers and methods in teaching reading (Philosophy thesis). Columbia University.

IMAGES