Wikipedia

Racial issues faced by black quarterbacks

In gridiron football and its variants, American football and Canadian football, the quarterback position is often considered the most important on the team. While there have been a growing number of players of African or minority descent throughout the history of collegiate and professional football, black players have historically faced difficulty in landing and retaining quarterback roles due to a number of factors. In addition, some black quarterbacks claim to have experienced bias towards or against them due to their race. Black players as a whole are disproportionately over represented in the NFL, being only ~13% of the U.S. population yet 67% of NFL players are black, with 17% of quarterbacks being black.[1]

History

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Since the earliest days of professional and college football, the number of black players, let alone quarterbacks, has been on the rise. The first black quarterback to start professionally was Bernie Custis for the Hamilton Tiger-Cats of the Canadian Football League in 1951.[2] The first two in the United States were Marlin Briscoe and James Harris, both of the American Football League, in 1968 and 1969, respectively.[3][a] The AFL was known to be more tolerant towards black players than the rival National Football League, which had harbored racist tendencies until the 1960s under the influence of Washington Redskins owner George Preston Marshall.[5] The two leagues eventually merged to form the current NFL in 1970.

The CFL was more welcoming to black quarterbacks than its American counterparts during the mid-twentieth century. By the 1970s, black starting quarterbacks were commonplace and included players such as Conredge Holloway, who was also the first Black quarterback to start in the SEC, for the Tennessee Volunteers whom he led to three straight bowl games. Holloway was drafted into the NFL by the New England Patriots, but he was drafted as a defensive back not a quarterback. As such Holloway chose to play in Canada where he could play quarterback and had a very successful career including being on the roster of the championship teams of the 64th Grey Cup and the 71st Grey Cup, as well as be chosen as an all-star and winning the CFL equivalent of league MVP in 1982.[6] Warren Moon also played in the CFL and won five Grey Cup championships in Canada before coming to play in the NFL. Moon's success largely broke the stereotype that blacks could not succeed as quarterbacks, which ushered more prominent black quarterbacks into the NFL starting in the 1980s.[1]

In 1971, 3% of quarterbacks in the NFL who threw at least 100 passes in the season were black, but by 2001 this number had risen to 35%.[7] The 1999 NFL draft was notable as eight out of thirteen quarterbacks selected that year were black. They include Donovan McNabb, Akili Smith, and Daunte Culpepper, who were selected in the first round.[8] Michael Vick, who was drafted two years later in 2001, became the first black quarterback taken with the first overall pick in the NFL draft.[9] During the 2013 season, 67 percent of NFL players were African American (black people make up 13 percent of the US population), yet only 17 percent of quarterbacks were; 82 percent of quarterbacks were white.[10]

In 2017, the New York Giants benched longtime quarterback Eli Manning in favor of Geno Smith, who was declared the starter for one week. The Giants were the last team never to field a black starting quarterback during an NFL season.[9] Though progress has evidently been made, a 2015 study showed that black quarterbacks were still twice as likely to be benched as their white counterparts.[11]

 
Doug Williams became the first quarterback to start a Super Bowl; he would additionally win his start in 1988

Since the inception of the game, only three quarterbacks with known black ancestry have led their team to a Super Bowl victory: Doug Williams in 1988, Russell Wilson in 2014, and Patrick Mahomes, who is multiracial, in 2020. Other black quarterbacks to start in a Super Bowl include Steve McNair in 2000, McNabb in 2005, Colin Kaepernick (who is multiracial), in 2013, Cam Newton in 2016, and Jalen Hurts (in 2023).[12] Super Bowl LVII was the first Super Bowl in which both teams' starting quarterbacks were Black, as Mahomes faced off against Hurts.[13]

Four quarterbacks with black ancestry (McNair, Newton, Mahomes, and Lamar Jackson), have won the Associated Press NFL Most Valuable Player Award.[14][15]

In addition, eleven quarterbacks with known black ancestry have won the Heisman Trophy: Andre Ware in 1989, Charlie Ward in 1993, Troy Smith in 2006, Newton in 2010, Robert Griffin III in 2011, Jameis Winston in 2013, Jackson in 2016, Kyler Murray, who is multiracial, in 2018,[16] Bryce Young in 2021, Caleb Williams in 2022, and Jayden Daniels in 2023.

In Week 1 of the 2020 NFL season, 10 quarterbacks with known black ancestry (Cam Newton, Teddy Bridgewater, Dwayne Haskins, Lamar Jackson, Patrick Mahomes, Kyler Murray, Dak Prescott, Tyrod Taylor, Deshaun Watson, Russell Wilson) started games for their teams, the most ever on opening week.[17]

Stereotyping of black quarterbacks

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A lot of us aren't viewed as passers – we're viewed as athletes. I think it's unfair and unfortunate.[18]

— Michael Vick

There is some controversy over how white and black quarterbacks tend to be described by the media, especially with NFL draft prospects. Draft experts and scouts have a history of describing black quarterbacks in ways that perpetuate racial stereotypes and hurt those prospects' chances of making it to the NFL as a quarterback.[19] Even those who make it to the NFL allegedly continue to face this narrative.[18]

An empirical study published in The Howard Journal of Communications supported this hypothesis. The researchers analyzed the written descriptions of quarterback prospects in the NFL Draft section of the Sports Illustrated website from 1998 to 2007. They looked at each player's description for words or phrases about athleticism and intelligence and sorted them into categories based on whether they were positive or negative. A significant difference was found between how black and white quarterbacks are described by SI. Black quarterbacks tend to be praised for their athleticism and criticized for a lack of intelligence. Meanwhile, white quarterbacks are often praised for their intelligence and criticized for a lack of athleticism.[20] For example, Daunte Culpepper and Tee Martin, both black quarterbacks, were described with terms such as "physical specimen" and "impressive specimen," respectively. Meanwhile, white players were described as "good signal callers," and "real student[s] of the game."[19]

Sports writers have discussed how Black quarterbacks often have their intellectual and leadership qualities as a quarterback minimized.[21][22][23] Due to "racial stacking" in sports, in which players are typecast into certain on-field positions based on racial stereotypes, Black players were rarely granted opportunities as quarterbacks, as it was considered a "thinking" position.[23] Martenzie Johnson of The Undefeated wrote, "Black quarterback success is more likely attributed to superior athletic skill by football broadcasters, research has shown, while white quarterbacks are deemed successful more because of their intellect."[21]

Wonderlic testing

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Until 2022, players were given the Wonderlic Personnel Test, a test of mental aptitude, at the NFL Scouting Combine. As of 2018, the average score of active Super Bowl winning quarterbacks was 30.7 which is particularly salient given the fact that a score of 22 is average and the position average is about 24. This list of winning quarterbacks included Russell Wilson, who got a score of 28. Of all positions, quarterbacks and offensive linemen, particularly centers, had the highest average scores as well as the greatest percentage of white players. Tight end, the position with the next highest position average, also had a greater percentage of white players relative to the league average.[1][24]

There is evidence that higher Wonderlic scores are mildly correlated with lower interception rates and higher passer ratings.[25][26] However, the Wonderlic test has not been without criticism, with some claiming it is racially biased.[27][28] In addition, some quarterbacks with low scores, such as Donovan McNabb, who is black, and Jim Kelly, who is white (15 for both), have had long successful careers in the NFL.[29] In 2013, the NFL began administering the Player Assessment Tool, an additional test of mental aptitude to go alongside the Wonderlic during the combine process.[30] Following the 2021 season, the League decided to eliminate the Wonderlic Test from the Combine process altogether.[31]

Notable examples of quarterbacks affected by racial stereotyping

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See also: List of starting black NFL quarterbacks

It's always going to be twice as bad just because of who I am – an African-American quarterback... Look across the league, man. We’re held to a certain standard. We almost have to be perfect.[32]

— Tyrod Taylor

Marlin Briscoe

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After a successful college career as a quarterback, the Denver Broncos drafted Marlin Briscoe in the 14th round of the 1968 NFL/AFL draft, with plans to shift him to the defensive secondary. It was commonplace back then to convert black players who had played quarterback to other positions, but Briscoe did not sign with Denver until he was promised a chance to practice at quarterback.[33] After injuries to Denver's starter, Briscoe became the first black quarterback to start a game in an American major professional football league in 1968. That season, Briscoe threw for 1,589 yards, broke the Broncos’ single-season rookie touchdown record with 14, and finished second in Rookie of the Year voting.[34] Regardless, it became clear that Denver would no longer play him at quarterback, so Briscoe asked for and was granted his release.[33] He then signed with the Buffalo Bills, who put him at wide receiver. Briscoe never played quarterback again for the rest of his career, but saw success as a receiver in Buffalo and later with the Miami Dolphins.[35]

James Harris

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James "Shack" Harris became the first black quarterback to start for the Bills and was the second overall to start for a team in NFL history. After being released by the Bills and signing with the Los Angeles Rams, Harris stepped in for injured Rams starter John Hadl in 1974, and head coach Chuck Knox made him the permanent starter, a first for any black quarterback and second overall since the AFL–NFL merger after Joe Gilliam briefly replaced Terry Bradshaw earlier that season for the Pittsburgh Steelers. Harris went on to also become the first black quarterback to make the Pro Bowl and start and win an NFL playoff game.[36] However, Harris received hate mail and death threats due to his race, which eventually required security guards to protect him both on the field and at hotels. When Harris suffered injuries, Knox was reportedly pressured by Rams owner Carroll Rosenbloom to play other quarterbacks such as Pat Haden and Ron Jaworski, even after Harris became healthy again and in spite of Harris leading the NFC in passer rating during his final year in Los Angeles. Harris's demotion and later trade to the San Diego Chargers became a racial issue in Los Angeles, with journalists such as Skip Bayless and Brad Pye Jr. covering the matter.[37][3] A wide perception of Harris' mistreatment as a starting quarterback by Rams management was referenced during a skit in the initial episode of The Richard Pryor Show.[38]

Kordell Stewart

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After spending his first years in the NFL as a backup quarterback and utility player, Kordell Stewart, nicknamed "Slash" due to his versatility, won the starting position for the Pittsburgh Steelers in 1997. After a productive 1997 season at quarterback, Stewart struggled after his offensive coordinator Chan Gailey left to become head coach of the Dallas Cowboys, and at one point in 1998 was ordered by head coach Bill Cowher to attend wide receiver meetings instead of quarterback meetings, though he would eventually return to the quarterback position in 1999. During this time, rumors surfaced that Stewart had been arrested after being caught doing sexual acts with another man in Schenley Park, leading to ongoing rumors of Stewart's sexuality to this day. Stewart himself acknowledged that he believed the rumors were race-based and no such police report exists on Stewart's arrest, confirming that the rumors were false.[39][40]

Stewart would face criticism for the rest of his time in Pittsburgh for his play, race, and rumored homosexuality,[41] even hearing a racial slur from a local fan, despite a bounce-back season in 2001, and as late as 2015 when encountering Steelers owner Dan Rooney at former teammate Jerome Bettis's induction into the Pro Football Hall of Fame was told by Rooney that "he would've made a better wide receiver". He opened up about his experiences with Pittsburgh in a piece published by The Players' Tribune.[40] Following the essay's publication, numerous journalists, including Ron Cook of the Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, expressed sympathy for Stewart and also confirmed witnessing the racism and homophobia displayed toward him during his tenure with the Steelers.[42]

Donovan McNabb

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In 2003, conservative radio talk show host Rush Limbaugh claimed that the media was biased in favor of Donovan McNabb, a prominent black quarterback at the time. Limbaugh stated that "the media has been very desirous that a black quarterback do well… he got a lot of credit for the performance of this team that he really didn't deserve."[43] In a study of news coverage of white and black quarterbacks, political scientist David Niven of Florida Atlantic University disputed Limbaugh's claim, and found that black quarterbacks, including McNabb, did not receive preferential treatment by the media, yet neither did white quarterbacks, noting there were "minor" and "inconsistent" differences.[44]

Tyrod Taylor

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Tyrod Taylor pictured in a 2016 game

In a 2017 interview published by The Buffalo News, then-Buffalo Bills quarterback Tyrod Taylor stated that he always knew he would be criticized more than his white counterparts, a sentiment also echoed by Michael Vick and Cam Newton, but that it drives him to be a better player.[18][32]

Deshaun Watson

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Despite his ability to both pass and run effectively, Cleveland Browns signal-caller Deshaun Watson despises being called a dual-threat quarterback as he believes the term is often used to stigmatize black quarterbacks.[45] In 2018, Watson, then playing for the Houston Texans, was the subject of racist remarks echoing these stereotypes after making a bad decision in a game. The superintendent of the Onalaska school district outside of Houston, Lynn Redden, came under fire and later resigned for saying that “when you need precision decision making you can't count on a black quarterback."[46]

Lamar Jackson

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Despite a prolific college career as Louisville's quarterback, Lamar Jackson received suggestions to switch to receiver by pundits including Pro Football Hall of Fame general manager Bill Polian due to his athleticism. Jackson adamantly fought off the notion leading up to the 2018 NFL draft, even refusing to run drills such as the 40-yard dash at the NFL Scouting Combine in order to focus on displaying his passing skills.[47][48] During Jackson's 2019 season as starting quarterback for the Baltimore Ravens, in which he won the MVP award, Polian recanted his previous statement, saying he was wrong for suggesting a positional switch for Jackson.[49] At one point after throwing 5 touchdown passes in a 59-10 blowout victory over the Miami Dolphins, Jackson was quoted as saying about his own performance, "not bad for a running back."[50]

Kyler Murray

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Before the Arizona Cardinals' 2022 season, quarterback Kyler Murray engaged in a lengthy contract dispute with the Cardinals.[51] Eventually, Murray and the Cardinals agreed to a 5-year, $230.5 million extension in July, but the new contract contained a film study clause that required Murray to study film for four hours a week. Several observers intensely criticized the Cardinals organization for the inclusion of the clause, including Hall of Fame quarterback Warren Moon, who perceived the clause as stereotypical towards black quarterbacks. Specifically, Moon elaborated that "it's something we were always accused of back in the day when they didn't let us (black quarterbacks) play...that we were lazy, that we didn't study, that we couldn't be leaders, that we weren't smart. So all those different things just kind of came to surface after we put all that stuff to bed over the years and just because of this deal that's going on between Arizona and Kyler." In response to the criticism, the team removed the clause a week later.[52]

See also

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Further reading

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  • Jordan, Billy Joe (2005). N.F.L. Black Quarterbacks Underrated. AuthorHouse. ISBN 9781420896657.
  • Martin, Wisdom T. (2003-04-01). Intentional Grounding: The History of Black Quarterbacks in the NFL. AuthorHouse. ISBN 9781403395535.
  • Rhoden, William C. (2007-01-30). Third and a Mile: The Trials and Triumph of the Black Quarterback. ESPN Books. ISBN 9781933060118.
  • Williams, Doug (1990). Quarterblack: Shattering the NFL Myth. Bonus Books. ISBN 9780929387475.
  • An Essay About Black Quarterbacks and the Wonderlic

Notes

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  1. ^ Willie Thrower played a game for the Chicago Bears of the NFL in 1953. While he did not start, he was the first black player exclusively listed as a quarterback to see playing time in the NFL. Prior black players such as Fritz Pollard, Joe Lillard and George Taliaferro had taken snaps at quarterback but were officially listed at other positions[4]

References

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  1. ^ a b c Jane McManus and Jason Reid (2017-04-26). "The NFL's racial divide". Andscape.
  2. ^ Maki, Allan (May 17, 2018). "Bernie Custis, pro football's first black quarterback, dies at 88". The Globe and Mail. Retrieved February 13, 2019.
  3. ^ a b Friedman, Samuel G. (February 2, 2018). "The quarterback who paved the way for Colin Kaepernick's protests". The Washington Post. Retrieved February 13, 2019.
  4. ^ Reid, Jason (October 5, 2017). "Willie Thrower: A perfect name for a trailblazing quarterback". Andscape. Retrieved April 4, 2019.
  5. ^ Charles K. Ross (1999). Outside the Lines: African Americans and the Integration of the National Football League. New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-7495-4.
  6. ^ "Conredge Holloway Jr. and the Barriers He Broke For African Americans". Ryan Crews of The Daily Beacon. 5 February 2020.
  7. ^ Ferrucci, Patrick; Tandoc, Edson C. (2017-06-12). "The Spiral of Stereotyping: Social Identity Theory and NFL Quarterbacks". Howard Journal of Communications. 29 (2): 107–125. doi:10.1080/10646175.2017.1315693. ISSN 1064-6175. S2CID 148604079.
  8. ^ Staff, Deadspin (February 6, 2014). "The Big Book Of Black Quarterbacks (Part 2)". Deadspin. Retrieved March 20, 2019. The 1999 draft was special because it was a banner year for black quarterbacks. Of the 13 taken, eight were African-American. Most of them, like McNabb, Smith, Culpepper, Shaun King, and Aaron Brooks, were seen as dual-threat physical specimens—an evolutionary step beyond weak-armed Kordell Stewart.
  9. ^ a b Johnson, Martenzie (2017-11-30). "The first black starting quarterback for each NFL team — and how long he lasted". Andscape. Retrieved 2019-09-04.
  10. ^ "The 2014 Racial and Gender Report Card: National Football League" (PDF). 10 September 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 February 2015. Retrieved 3 February 2015.
  11. ^ Volz, Brian D. (2017-12-01). "Race and Quarterback Survival in the National Football League". Journal of Sports Economics. 18 (8): 850–866. doi:10.1177/1527002515609659. ISSN 1527-0025. S2CID 155384747.
  12. ^ "Black Quarterbacks Who've Played in the Super Bowl". NBC News. 8 February 2016. Retrieved 3 December 2018.
  13. ^ Vrentas, Jenny (February 13, 2023) [February 12, 2023]. "Black Quarterbacks in the Super Bowl Reflect Progress and Lost Opportunity". The New York Times. Retrieved February 13, 2023.
  14. ^ "MVP Patrick Mahomes is now part of the legendary black quarterback fraternity". Andscape. 3 February 2019. Archived from the original on December 11, 2019. Retrieved February 2, 2020.
  15. ^ Jamison, Hensley (February 2020). "Ravens QB Lamar Jackson unanimous pick for NFL MVP after historic season". ESPN. Archived from the original on February 2, 2020. Retrieved February 2, 2020.
  16. ^ Dukes, Gamble (2018-12-10). "The 2018 Heisman Quarterback Color Rush Was Long Overdue". The Shadow League. Retrieved 2019-03-20.
  17. ^ O'Shea, Bridget (29 June 2015). "50 years later, King's speech in Winnetka still resonates". Chicago Tribune. Retrieved 14 September 2020.
  18. ^ a b c Kimes, Mina (November 2, 2017). "The great Tyrod Taylor debate". ESPN.
  19. ^ a b Bigler, Matthew; Jeffries, Judson L. (2008-03-04). ""An Amazing Specimen": NFL Draft Experts' Evaluations of Black Quarterbacks". Journal of African American Studies. 12 (2): 120–141. doi:10.1007/s12111-008-9036-7. ISSN 1559-1646. S2CID 144737851.
  20. ^ Mercurio, Eugenio; Filak, Vincent F. (2010-01-29). "Roughing the Passer: The Framing of Black and White Quarterbacks Prior to the NFL Draft". Howard Journal of Communications. 21 (1): 56–71. doi:10.1080/10646170903501328. ISSN 1064-6175. S2CID 144208873.
  21. ^ a b Johnson, Martenzie (September 24, 2018). "Deshaun Watson and the Intellect of Black Quarterbacks". Andscape. Retrieved February 20, 2021.
  22. ^ Weintraub, Robert (April 24, 2013). "The Original Dual-Threat". SB Nation. Retrieved February 20, 2021. None of these players were dual-threat guys, or were allowed to be, anyway. Sure, racism was a factor — blacks were presumed not to have the 'faculties' to play the game's most demanding position. And precious few owners were comfortable having a black man as the face of their franchise.
  23. ^ a b Hruby, Patrick (September 20, 2019). "'We've come so far': how black quarterbacks defied a racist past to become the NFL's future". The Guardian. Retrieved February 20, 2021.
  24. ^ Clay Travis (April 24, 2017). "NFL Quarterback Wonderlic Scores Matter A Great Deal". Archived from the original on 2017-04-27.
  25. ^ Austin Tymins and Andrew Fraga (April 23, 2014). "Wondering about the Wonderlic: Does it Predict Quarterback Performance?".
  26. ^ Josh Millet (2008-04-24). "The Wonderlic as a Predictor of Performance in the NFL".
  27. ^ Ricardo A. Hazell (25 April 2017). "NFL Draft Wonderlic Leaks Reek Of Racism And Classism". The Shadow League. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
  28. ^ "Reminder: The NFL's Wonderlic aptitude test is totally worthless". Vox Media. 8 May 2018. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
  29. ^ Gladwell, Malcolm (December 15, 2008). "Most Likely to Succeed". The New Yorker. Retrieved January 12, 2013.
  30. ^ "Watch out Wonderlic, there's a new combine test in town". USA Today Sports. 17 February 2013. Retrieved 17 December 2018.
  31. ^ "NFL pre-draft changes: Teams may lose pick for interview violations, Wonderlic test being dropped, per report". CBSSports.com. 2022-01-05. Retrieved 2022-01-22.
  32. ^ a b Kimberley A. Martin (26 October 2017). "Tyrod Taylor unfiltered: 'When we win, everything's great. When we lose, they want to crucify me.'". The Buffalo News. Retrieved 3 November 2018.
  33. ^ a b Reid, Jason (2016-08-25). "The rise and fall and resurgence of Marlin Briscoe". Andscape. Retrieved 2019-09-05.
  34. ^ "Marlin Briscoe, African American pioneer | Pro Football Hall of Fame Official Site". www.profootballhof.com. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
  35. ^ Taylor, Phil (July 6, 2015). "Marlin Briscoe". Sports Illustrated. Vol. 123, no. 1. pp. 64–68 – via EBSCOhost.
  36. ^ Reid, Jason (12 October 2017). "James 'Shack' Harris is prominent on list of groundbreaking quarterbacks". Andscape. Retrieved 25 November 2018.
  37. ^ Samuel G. Freedman (22 May 2018). "Chuck Knox should be remembered for making James Harris the NFL's first black starting QB". Andscape. Retrieved 25 November 2018.
  38. ^ Justin Tinsley (16 January 2020). "Richard Pryor told America about the struggle of black quarterbacks". Andscape. Retrieved 21 September 2024.
  39. ^ Hall, Jason (2021-02-05). "Former NFL Quarterback Opens Up About Rumors He Was Gay". FOX Sports Radio. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  40. ^ a b Stewart, Kordell (2021-02-04). ""You Know What I Heard About Kordell Stewart???"". The Players' Tribune. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  41. ^ Adams, Biba (2021-02-16). "Kordell Stewart defends sexuality, 'true love' marriage to Porsha Williams". news.yahoo.com. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  42. ^ Cook, Ron (2021-02-05). "Ron Cook: Kordell Stewart deserved better during his time with Steelers". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Retrieved 2021-11-04.
  43. ^ "McNabb's performance: A Rush to judgment?". ESPN.com. 2003-10-01. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
  44. ^ Niven, David (2005). "Race, Quarterbacks, and the Media: Testing the Rush Limbaugh Hypothesis". Journal of Black Studies. 35 (5): 684–694. doi:10.1177/0021934704266083. JSTOR 40034343. S2CID 141115237.
  45. ^ "Deshaun Watson, Jalen Hurts see 'dual-threat QB' in different light". USA Today. January 8, 2017. Retrieved August 24, 2018.
  46. ^ "Superintendent apologizes for comment about black quarterbacks". Houston Chronicle. 2018-09-17. Retrieved 2018-10-23.
  47. ^ Bell, Jarrett (2 March 2018). "It's insulting to suggest Louisville quarterback Lamar Jackson should switch to wide receiver". USA Today Sports. Retrieved 27 December 2018.
  48. ^ Richardson, Shandel. "Former Boynton Beach quarterback Lamar Jackson out to silence NFL doubters". Sun-Sentinel.com. Retrieved 2018-10-29.
  49. ^ Bell, Jarrett (November 6, 2019). "Bill Polian: 'I was wrong' for saying Lamar Jackson should be a wide receiver or running back in NFL". USAToday.com. Retrieved December 28, 2019.
  50. ^ "Lamar Jackson destroys his critics: 'Not bad for a running back.'". For The Win. 2019-09-08. Retrieved 2020-12-20.
  51. ^ "Kyler Murray rejoins Cardinals for OTAs amid contract dispute". USA Today. 1 June 2022. Retrieved 8 July 2023.
  52. ^ "Warren Moon calls Kyler Murray's film study clause a 'slap in the face' to Black quarterbacks". USA Today. 31 July 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
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