Wikipedia

Rural American history

Rural American history is the history from colonial times to the present of rural American society, economy and politics.

According to Robert P. Swierenga, " Rural history centers on the lifestyle and activities of farmers and their family patterns, farming practices, social structures, political ties, and community institutions."[1]

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Economic and demographic changes

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The economy has shifted, first from agriculture to industry in cities and more recently to a service economy with a large suburban base.

At the first census in 1790, the rural population was 3.7 million and urban only 202,000. The nation was 95% rural. By 1860 the rural population had exploded to 25 million but urban had grown faster to 6 million, or 80% rural. The population in the 1890 census was 63 million people. The urban population was 35%, comprising 22 million living in 2700 cities of 2500 or more people. In 1890 65% of the national population, or 36 million people, lived in rural areas. Of these 2.7 million lived in 13,000 towns of less than 2500 people. and 36 million lived in open country. In 1920 the urban population reached 54 million, or 51% while rural America had 52 million or 49%. The 2020 census counted 331 million Americans, 17% or 57 million of them in rural areas. [2]

Identity and political culture

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Rural versus urban remains a factor in American politics.[3] Hal S. Baron argues farmers often were at odds with the dominant worldview. Their localism was rooted in Jeffersonian democracy and its republican ideals. They feared concentrated economic and political power, and distrusted urban ostentation. These looked like potential threats to their own freedom and to the overall American well-being. Such views permeated the Grangers and Populists, as they challenged the dominance of railroads and merchants. Rural America was skeptical of the Country Life Movement when metropolitan do-gooders came in and tried to upgrade them. They warned against the outside experts, who wanted to consolidate schools and replace local control with rule by the elites in the county seat. The Social Gospel did not echo the true Gospel they knew so well. The mixed reception of popular culture and consumerism in rural America further illustrates this tension between rural traditions and modernizing forces. Ever since the battles between Jeffersonian Republicans against Hamiltonian Federalists, the conflict between localism and cosmopolitanism has provided clues to understand the defensiveness of rural America.[4]

Baron argues that better communication between countryside and city has eased the conflict. Nevertheless rural identity, deeply rooted in the land, has profoundly shaped American identity. There is a strong sense of community in rural areas, with residents working to find solutions to problems rather than abandoning their communities. Intellectuals often present rural areas as repositories of traditional American values and ways of life.[5][6][7]

Economics of land and agriculture

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The new nation had an abundance of high quality farm land and a severe shortage of laborers. Farm families worked hard and produced almost all their food and clothing, and traded surplus items with neighbors. Typically they exchanged their small surpluses foods or tobacco or rice or lumber for imported items with the country merchant at a nearby crossroads. Or they sold grain to the miller, or sold some cattle or sheep to an itinerant buyer. A long-term priority was clearing the land, expanding the farm, and making plans for the sons to inherit land and the daughters to have a dowry.[8][9][10]

Mechanization and new technologies transformed farming practices over time. By the late 19th century the U.S. had the largest and most productive system of commercial agriculture in the world. Rural towns competed for access to the new railroad system. Towns that got a station sharply cut the cost of travel and shipping farm products out and consumer products in. Towns with a station attracted families that had the money to get established in farming.[11]

In the 20th century rural residents advocated for federal and state help to obtain modern conveniences including rural free mail delivery] (1906); electricity (1936); paved roads (1920s); telephones (1930s); Interstate highways (1950s); Internet access (21st century).[12]

Land ownership has been central to rural American life, linked to ideals of independence and political influence. Family farms were a dominant feature of rural life for much of American history. Down to the early 20th century, farmers had a priority of establishing their children in farming. After 1920 new technology caused revolution, as horses and mules and hired hands were replaced by powerful machines. Farms were consolidated --a few giant operations replaced dozens of small ones. The family farm was replaced by a locally owned business enterprise. The great majority of children left farming and moved to nearby towns.[13]

Agriculture remains important in the 21st century, with rural America still being the primary source for the nation's food, fuel, and fiber.

Country life

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Further information: Country life movement

Rural areas have faced economic instability, lack of resources, and isolation.

In the South the American Civil War devastated the rural economy, as cotton prices fell and the vast sums invested in slaves disappeared overnight.[14]

In the 21st century issues like limited broadband access, strained educational systems, and economic distress continue to be serious. However, rural areas have also shown resilience and found creative solutions to their problems.[15]

Farmers organize

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By the late 19th century, farmer movements emerged, typified by the National Grange. They also created new economic roles, especially in forming coops.[16] In the wheat belts and cotton belts They also played political roles, sponsoring parties like the Populist Party. They tried to use politics to gain advantages regarding their grievances with grain elevators and railroad rates.[17]

The merchants in town and the farmers depended upon each other economically, but there remained a we-versus-them tension. When some issues came up, such as taxes or schools, the merchants sided with the town faction. On the railroad question they were on the same side: both complained that rates they paid for manufactured products coming in and for farm products going out were too high. On the issue of grain elevators, the merchants sided with their fellow businessmen. The farmers won out thanks to Montgomery Ward and later Sears. The farmers gained a much better selection at better prices than the local store could offer.[18]

20th century

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Rural telephone service

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AT&T as an urban monopoly usually ignored high-cost low-profit service to farmers.[19] Many small independents operated decentralized, locally owned and locally oriented telephone networks that offered cheaper but mediocre quality service to a small towns and rural areas, and did not provide long distance.[20][21] By 1912 there were 3200 rural telephone systems, reaching 6000 in 1927. Most were not-for-profit cooperatives that were owned by the users who leased the telephones. When the Great Depression hit after 1929 rural farmers were especially likely to discontinue the telephone. In 1949 most farms in the North, but few in the South, had electricity. Nationally only one in three had a telephone. Starting that year, the Rural Electrification Administration (REA) gave out grants and low interest loans to help local independents in rural areas to expand the telephone service.[22]

Education

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Public schools

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Main article: History of education in the United States
 
A reconstructed one-room 19th century schoolhouse in rural New York State

In 1930, the nation had 238,000 elementary schools, of which 149,000 were one-room schools wherein one teacher simultaneously handled all students, aged 6 to 16. The teacher was typically the daughter of a local farm family. She averaged four years of training in a nearby high school or normal school. On average, she had two and a half years of teaching experience and planned to continue for another two or three years until she married. She had 22 students enrolled, but on average day only 15 were in attendance. She taught 152 days a year, and was paid $874.[23] The students were not divided into grades 1 to 8, but grouped loosely by age. The teacher spent the day moving from group to group, giving them texts to memorize and then listening to their recitations. They did not have homework or tests. The condition of the school buildings ranged from poor to mediocre; they were lucky to have an outhouse. Andrew Gulliford says, "Rural schools were frequently overcrowded, materials were hard to obtain, and repairs and improvements were subject to the financial whims of parsimonious school boards hesitant even to replace dogeared textbooks."[24]

Sharp debates took place in most of the local districts about merging into a consolidated district. Farmers feared loss of control to the experts in towns, and loss of opportunity for their teenage daughters to teach before getting married.

Country life movement

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Main article: Country life movement

Medical issues

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The urban-rural dichotomy has a medical dimension. Two major diseases, malaria and hookworm, historically were largely rural phenomenon. They were stamped out by large-scale efforts to clean up the environment. Malaria is spread by the bite of a particular species of mosquito, and is eradicated by draining stagnant water. [25][26]

the Rockefeller Sanitary Commission in 1910 discovered that nearly half the rural people in the poorest parts of the South were infected with hookworms. The worms live in the small intestine, eat the best food, and leave the victim weak and listless. It was called the "germ of laziness." People were infected by walking barefoot, in grassy areas where people defecate. In the long run outhouses and shoes solved the problem. The Commission developed an easy cure. The person took a special medicine, then a strong laxative. When most residents did so the hookworms would be gone. The Commission helped state health departments set up eradication crusades that treated 440,000 people in 578 counties in all 121 Southern states, and ended the epidemic.[27].[28][29]

Hospital care is largely based in cities. In 1997, rural areas included 20% of the nation’s population, but fewer than 11% of its physicians.[30]

Historiography

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In historiography, rural history is a field of study focusing on the history of societies in rural areas. It is based in academic history departments, state historical societies, and local museums. At its inception, the field was based on the economic history of agriculture. Since the 1980s it has become increasingly influenced by social history and has diverged from the economic and technological focuses of "agricultural history". It can be considered a counterpart to urban history.

A number of academic journals and learned societies exist to promote rural history.[31] H-RURAL is a daily discussion group.[32]

Intellectuals against the city

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As Morton White demonstrated in The Intellectual versus the City: from Thomas Jefferson to Frank Lloyd Wright (1962), the overwhelming consensus of American intellectuals has been hostile to the city. The main idea is the Romantic view that the unspoiled nature of rural America is morally superior to the over civilized cities, which are the natural homes of sharpsters and criminals. American poets did not rhapsodize over the cities. On the contrary they portrayed the metropolis as the ugly scene of economic inequality, crime, drunkenness, prostitution and every variety of immorality. Urbanites were set to rhyme as crafty, overly competitive, artificial, and as having lost too much naturalness and goodness.[33][34]

Notes

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  1. ^ Robert P. Swierenga, "Theoretical Perspectives on the New Rural History: From Environmentalism to Modernization" Agricultural History 56#3 (1982), pp. 495–502 on p. 496. He adds: "The standard operational definition of rurality includes two criteria-residence in an area of low population density and chief livelihood earned in agriculture. But ruralness is more than location or an occupation; it is a way of life. Rural life, as distinct from urban living, traditionally involved physical if not social isolation, extended family networks, simplex social organizations, seasonal labor patterns and unceasing handwork, and an attitude of complacency in the face of nature's forces."
  2. ^ Bureau of the Census, Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970 (1976) pp. 10-11 series A43 to A72.online
  3. ^ James G. Gimpel, et al. "The urban–rural gulf in American political behavior." Political behavior 42 (2020): 1343-1368. online
  4. ^ Hal S. Barron, "And the Crooked Shall Be Made Straight: Public Road Administration and the Decline of Localism in the Rural North, 1870-1930" Journal of Social History 26#1 (1992), pp. 81-103, online
  5. ^ Morton White and Lucia White, "The American intellectual versus the American city." Daedalus 90.1 (1961): 166-179 online
  6. ^ Robert Wuthnow, The Left Behind: Decline and Rage in Rural America (Princeton UP, 2018) online
  7. ^ For a highly controversial interpretation by social scientists, see Tom Schaller and Paul Waldman, White Rural Rage: The Threat to American Democracy (2024)--see White Rural Rage.
  8. ^ Paul W. Gates, "Problems of Agricultural History 1790-1840" Agricultural History (1972) 46#1 pp.33-58 online
  9. ^ Richard L. Bushman. The American Farmer in the Eighteenth Century: A Social and Cultural History (2018) pp. 273–276.
  10. ^ Lewis E. Atherton, The Southern Country Store, 1800-1860 (LSU Press, 1949) online
  11. ^ David B. Danbom, Born in the Country (2017) pp. 121–150.
  12. ^ Katherine Jellison, "Women and Technology on the Great Plains, 1910-1940" Great Plains Quarterly (1988) 8#3 pp 145-157.
  13. ^ Mark Friedberger, Farm Families and Change in 20th-Century America (1988) pp.10–28.
  14. ^ Danbom, Born in the Country (2017) pp. 99–120.
  15. ^ Danbom, Born in the Country (2017) pp. 240–252.
  16. ^ Jenny Bourne, In Essentials, Unity: An Economic History of the Grange Movement (2017).
  17. ^ Fred A. Shannon, The Farmer's Last Frontier, (1945) pp. 291–348.
  18. ^ Hal Barron, Mixed Harvest (1997) pp.155–191.
  19. ^ Don F. Hadwiger, and Clay Cochran, "Rural telephones in the United States." Agricultural History 58.3 (1984): 221–238 online.
  20. ^ Milton Mueller, "Universal service in telephone history: A reconstruction" Telecommunications Policy 17#5 (July 1993) pp. 352–369 https://doi.org/10.1016/0308-5961(93)90050-D
  21. ^ Robert MacDougall, The People's Network: The Political Economy of the Telephone in the Gilded Age (U of Pennsylvania Press, 2014) covers the independents.
  22. ^ "History of Rural Telecommunications" NTCA (2023) online
  23. ^ "Qualifications of America's 153,000 one-room school teachers," in Social Science and Mathematics (1932) vol 32 p 206 10.1111/j.1949-8594.1932.tb16517.x
  24. ^ Andrew Gulliford, America's Country Schools (U of Colorado Press, 1984), p. 39.
  25. ^ Barber, Marshall Albert. "The history of malaria in the United States." Public Health Reports (1929): 2575-2587. online
  26. ^ Louis L. Williams, Jr., "Malaria Eradication in the United States" American Journal of Public Health and the Nations Health 53, 17_21, https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.53.1.17
  27. ^ C. Vann Woodward, ''The Origins of the New South, 1877-1913 (1951) p. 417.
  28. ^ Bleakley, Hoyt (2007). "Disease and Development: Evidence from Hookworm Eradication in the American South". The Quarterly Journal of Economics. 122 (1): 73–117. doi:10.1162/qjec.121.1.73. ISSN 0033-5533. PMC 3800113. PMID 24146438.
  29. ^ John Ettling, The Germ of Laziness: Rockefeller Philanthropy and Public Health in the New South (Harvard UP, 1981).
  30. ^ Thomas C. Ricketts, "The changing nature of rural health care." Annual review of public health 21.1 (2000): 639-657.
  31. ^ See Agricultural History the leading scholarly journal in its field.
  32. ^ See "H-Rural: H-Net's network for the study of rural and agricultural history].
  33. ^ Robert H. Walker, "The Poet and the Rise of the City". Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1962): 85–99. in JSTOR
  34. ^ See also Morton White and Lucia White, "The American intellectual versus the American city." Daedalus 90.1 (1961): 166-179 online and Morton White and Lucia White, The intellectual versus the city: from Thomas Jefferson to Frank Lloyd Wright (Harvard University Press, 1962).

See also

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Further reading

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  • Cyclopedia of American agriculture; a popular survey of agricultural conditions, ed by Liberty Hyde Bailey, 4 vol 1907-1909. online edition highly useful compendium
  • Anderson, Rodney. The Rural Midwest Since World War II (Northern Illinois UP, 2014). online
  • Atherton, Lewis E. "The services of the frontier merchant." Mississippi Valley Historical Review 24.2 (1937): 153-170. online
  • Atherton, Lewis E. The Southern Country Store, 1800-1860 (LSU Press, 1949) online
  • Ayers, Edward L. The Promise of the New South: Life After Reconstruction (2007) online
  • Barron, Hal S. Mixed Harvest: The Second Great Transformation in the Rural North, 1870-1930 (1997) online copy of the book see also online review of this book
  • Bidwell, Percy Wells, and John I. Falconer. History of Agriculture in the Northern United States 1620-1860 (1941) online
  • Bowers, William L. The Country Life Movement in America, 1900-1920 (1974).
  • Brunner, Edmund de Schweinitz. Rural social trends (1933) online edition
  • Bushman, Richard L. The American Farmer in the Eighteenth Century A Social and Cultural History (Yale 2018) online
  • Christensen, Karen, and David Levinson, eds. The encyclopedia of community: From the village to the virtual world (4 vol. Sage, 2003 ) ISBN 0–7619–2598–8
  • Cronon, William, Changes in the Land: Indians, Colonists and the Ecology of New England (Hill and Wang, 1983)
  • Cronon, William, Nature's Metropolis: Chicago and the Great West (W.W. Norton, 1991)
  • Danbom, David B. Born in the Country: A History of Rural America (3rd ed. 1995) online; focus on economics of farming
  • Dant, Sara. Losing Eden: An Environmental History of the American West. (U of Nebraska Press, 2023). online, also see online book review
  • Dollard, John. Caste and Class in a Southern Town (1937) online
  • Eberhardt, Mark Stephen. Health, United States, 2001: Urban and rural health chartbook (National Center for Health Statistics, 2001) online.
  • Fink, Deborah. Open Country, Iowa: Rural Women, Tradition and Change (SUNY Press, 1986).
  • Fite, Gilbert C. American Farmers: The New Minority (Indiana UP, 1981), covers 20th century.
  • Fite, Gilbert C. Cotton Fields No More: Southern Agriculture, 1865-1980 (2021)
  • Friedberger, Mark. Farm Families and Change in 20th-Century America (U of Kentucky Press, 2021)
  • Fuller, Wayne E. RFD, the changing face of rural America (Indiana UP, 1964) online
  • Gates, Paul W. The Farmer's Age: Agriculture. 1815-1860 (1960)
  • Gimpel, James G., et al. "The urban–rural gulf in American political behavior." Political behavior 42 (2020): 1343-1368. online
  • Gjerde, Jon. The Minds of the West: Ethnocultural Evolution in the Rural Middle West, 1830-1917 (1997)
  • Goreham, Gary A. Encyclopedia of Rural America (2 vol 1997); 438pp; 232 essays by experts on arts, business, community development, economics, education, environmental issues, family, labor, quality of life, recreation, and sports.
  • Hagood, Margaret Jarman. Mothers of the South: Portraiture of the White Tenant Farm Woman (U of North Carolina Press, 1939).
  • Hathaway, Dale E. et al. People of Rural America (Bureau of the Census, 1968) statistical detail from 1960 census. online
  • Hirsh, Richard F. Powering American Farms: The Overlooked Origins of Rural Electrification (Johns Hopkins UP, 2022) online review of this book
  • Holt, Marilyn Irvin. Linoleum, better babies, & the modern farm woman, 1890-1930 (1995) online
  • Hurt, Douglas, ed. The Rural South Since World War II (1998)
  • Jensen, Joan, and Nancy Grey Osterud, eds. American Rural and Farm Women in Historical Perspective
  • Kirschner, Don S. City and Country: Rural Responses to Urbanization in the 1920s (Greenwood Press, 1970)
  • Kirby, Jack Temple. Rural Worlds Lost: The American South 1920-1960 (1987)
  • Kulikoff; Allan. From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers (2000)
  • Lauck, Jon. "'The Silent Artillery of Time': Understanding Social Change in the Rural Midwest," Great Plains Quarterly 19 (Fall 1999)
  • Lingeman, Richard. Small Town America: A Narrative History, 1620-The Present (Putnam, 1980)
  • Mueller, K.J. "Rural health policy: Past as a prelude to the future". in Sana Loue, and B.E. Quill, (eds.). Handbook of Rural Health (Kluwer Academic-Penum, 2001) pp. 45–72. ISBN 978-0-306-46479-9.
  • Ricketts, Thomas C. "The changing nature of rural health care." Annual review of public health 21.1 (2000): 639-657. online
  • Ricketts, Thomas C., ed. Rural health in the United States (Oxford UP, 1999) online.
  • Riney-Kehrberg, Pamela. ed. The Routledge History of Rural America (2016)
  • Russell, Howard S. A long, deep furrow: three centuries of farming in New England (1976)
  • Russo, David J. American towns: an interpretive history (2001) online
  • Schafer, Joseph. The social history of American agriculture (1936) online edition
  • Schapsmeier, Edward L., and Frederick H. Encyclopedia of American Agricultural History (Greenwood, 1975)
  • Schob, David E. Hired hands and plowboys: farm labor in the Midwest, 1815-60 (1975), pp. 173–249.
  • Shannon, Fred A. The Farmer's Last Frontier: Agriculture, 1860–1897 (1945) online
  • Sims, Newell Leroy. The Rural Community: Ancient and Modern (1920) online
  • Taylor, Carl C. Rural sociology (1933) online
  • Tickamyer, Ann, et al. Rural Poverty in the United States (2017)
  • U.S. Department of Agriculture. Farmers in a changing world (1940) 1240 pp of articles by experts in agriculture and rural life online
  • Vidich, Arthur J., and Joseph Bensman. Small town in mass society; class, power, and religion in a rural community (1960), in upstate New York online
  • Vogt, Paul L. Introduction to rural sociology (1922) online
  • Weeden, William Babcock. Economic and Social History of New England, 1620-1789 (1891) 964 pages; online edition
  • Woodward, C. Vann. The Origins of the New South, 1877-1913 (1951) online
  • Wuthnow, Robert. The Left Behind: Decline and Rage in Rural America (Princeton UP, 2018) online
  • Wyman, Andrea. Rural women teachers in the United States (1997) online

Historiography

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  • Ambrose, Linda M. et al. "Revisiting Rural Women's History" Agricultural History (2015), 89#3, pp. 380-387 online
  • Merchant, Carolyn. The Columbia guide to American environmental history (Columbia UP, 2012).
  • Swierenga, Robert P. “Theoretical Perspectives on the New Rural History: From Environmentalism to Modernization.” Agricultural History 56#3 (1982), pp. 495–502. online


Primary sources

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  • Phillips, Ulrich B. ed. Plantation and Frontier Documents, 1649–1863; Illustrative of Industrial History in the Colonial and Antebellum South: Collected from MSS. and Other Rare Sources. 2 Volumes. (1909). online
  • Rasmussen, Wayne, ed. Agriculture in the United States: A Documentary History (3 vol 1975) 2800 pages of primary sources online
  • Schmidt, Louis Bernard, ed. Readings in the economic history of American agriculture (1925) online
  • Sorokin, Pitirim et al., eds. A Systematic Sourcebook in Rural Sociology (3 vol. 1930), 2000 pages of primary sources and commentary; worldwide coverage
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