The Military and Political Relations Between the Circassians and Russia (1550–1710) encompass a prolonged period of strategic alliances, military cooperation, and evolving diplomatic ties.[1] The relationship was shaped by the Circassian principalities' need to counter the influence of the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate, and by Russia’s ambition to secure its southern borders.[2]
Background
editIn the 16th century, the Northern Caucasus was a crucial strategic region between Europe and the Middle East. The Circassians, also known as the Adyghe people, held a significant position in this area, divided into Western Circassia and Eastern Circassia (Kabarda). Facing increasing military pressure from the Ottoman Empire and the Crimean Khanate, Circassian leaders sought powerful allies. At the same time, Russia under Ivan the Terrible was expanding its influence, and an alliance with the Circassians provided mutual benefits in countering Ottoman ambitions.[3]
Early Diplomatic Relations (1550s–1560s)
editFormal diplomatic relations began in the 1550s when Circassian princes, including Mashuk and Ivan Yezbozukov, visited Moscow. Their goal was to secure Russian support against the Crimean Tatars, who frequently raided Circassian lands. Ivan IV received them favorably, marking the start of a relationship built on shared interests in security and trade.[4]
In 1557, Prince Temryuk Idarov of Kabarda took a significant step by forming a formal alliance with Russia. This alliance was strengthened when his daughter, Maria Temryukovna, married Ivan IV in 1561. This marriage was not merely a dynastic union but also a political alliance, which symbolized a formal commitment between Russia and the Kabardian elite. The marriage provided Russia with a loyal ally in the Caucasus and allowed Kabarda to resist Ottoman and Crimean influence more effectively.[5]
Military Cooperation and Key Campaigns (1560s–1580s)
editIn the 1560s, military cooperation intensified between the Circassians and Russia. Russian commanders, including Dmitry Vishnevetsky and Ivan Sheremetev, conducted joint campaigns with Circassian forces to defend against Crimean incursions. For instance, in 1567, a Russian fortress was established along the Terek River to provide a strategic point of defense and facilitate cooperation with Circassian allies. This fortification served as a critical outpost, deterring Crimean and Ottoman advances in the region.[6][7]
The construction of fortresses along the Terek River demonstrated Moscow’s commitment to the alliance, while also symbolizing Kabarda’s role as a buffer state protecting Russian interests. However, the presence of Russian fortifications also attracted Ottoman hostility, as it threatened established trade and military routes across the Northern Caucasus.[8]
Shifts in Relations and Internal Conflicts (1580s–1650s)
editAs the 16th century drew to a close, the Russo-Circassian alliance faced challenges. Internal divisions within Kabarda, where rival factions held differing loyalties toward Moscow or the Ottoman Empire, weakened the unity of the Circassians. These divisions often disrupted coordinated military efforts and allowed the Ottomans to extend their influence over certain factions in Circassian society.[9]
By the early 17th century, Kabarda was split between pro-Russian and pro-Ottoman groups, with some Circassian nobles actively resisting Russian influence. Despite this, Russian support continued intermittently, as Moscow viewed Kabarda as essential for maintaining stability in the Caucasus and containing Ottoman power.[10]
Renewed Alliance and Political Integration (1650s–1710)
editIn the mid-17th century, Moscow sought to restore its influence in the Northern Caucasus. By this time, Russia had developed stronger administrative and military capacities, and Circassian leaders recognized the benefits of aligning with a now more powerful Russian state. Moscow’s commitment to military aid and political protection encouraged some Circassian factions to reaffirm their loyalty.[11]
In the late 1600s and early 1700s, under the leadership of Tsar Peter the Great, Russian expansionist policies accelerated. Moscow saw the Caucasus as strategically vital for trade and security. By the early 18th century, Russia’s presence in Kabarda became more assertive, laying the groundwork for future incorporation into the Russian Empire. The alliance with Circassian elites allowed Russia to establish a permanent influence over the region, effectively making Kabarda a protectorate within Russia’s sphere.[12]
Legacy of Russo-Circassian Relations
editThe period from 1550 to 1710 established key precedents for Russo-Circassian relations. The alliances, marriages, and military cooperation between Circassian nobles and Russian rulers set the stage for the eventual incorporation of Circassian territories into the Russian Empire. Although complex and at times contentious, these relationships underscored the strategic importance of the Northern Caucasus and illustrated how Circassian leaders navigated foreign alliances to preserve their autonomy amid regional power struggles.[13]
The Russo-Circassian alliance also exemplified the broader dynamics of diplomacy in the Caucasus, where alliances were continuously shaped by the geopolitical interests of powerful neighbors. These early alliances laid the foundation for a longstanding, though often fraught, relationship between Russia and the peoples of the Caucasus, one that would continue to evolve over the coming centuries.[14]
"The Caucasus seemed to freeze before the accession of Empress Catherine II to the throne. The word "frozen" does not mean at all that there was peace and quiet in the Caucasus, and God's grace. There was nothing like that. Blood was shed, small fights and major battles took place, but the offensive movement of Russia stopped and there was a struggle only for the Russian people to stay in their places. The arena of this struggle was the Tersk line, where the Grebensky, Kizlyar and Tersk family Cossacks lived. Against them were the Tavlin Lezgins, Chechens, both Kabards, recognized as neutral by the treaty with Turkey in 1739, but fell under the influence of the Turks so much that ancient Christianity was replaced by Islam here and Kabardins from friends and allies of the Russians became their sworn enemies.[15]
References
edit- ^ Смирнов, Н.А. (1948). Кабардинский вопрос в русско-турецких отношениях в XVI–XVII вв. Москва-Ленинград: Издательство Академии Наук СССР. p. 220.
- ^ РГАДА. "Российский государственный архив древних актов (РГАДА). Ногайские дела". РГАДА. Retrieved 2024-11-04.
- ^ Некрасов, А.М. (1990). Международные отношения и народы Западного Кавказа (последняя четверть XV – первая половина XVI в.). Москва: Наука. p. 128.
- ^ Новосельский, А.А. (1948). Борьба Московского государства с татарами в первой половине XVII в. Москва; Ленинград: Наука. p. 456.
- ^ Панеш, Р.А. (2014). "Военно-политические контакты адыгов с Россией во второй половине XVI в.". Вестник Дагестанского государственного университета (4): 64–70.
- ^ Дзамихов, К.Ф. (1999). "Этнические элиты Кабарды и Ногайской Орды в XVI–XVII вв.: конфликты и сотрудничество". Известия Кабардино-Балкарского научного центра РАН (2): 100–107.
- ^ Садиков, П.А. (1947). Поход татар и турок на Астрахань в 1569 г. Исторические записки. Москва. pp. 132–166.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Кушева, Е.Н. (1950). Политика Русского государства на Северном Кавказе в 1552–1572 гг. Исторические записки. Vol. 34. Москва: Издательство Академии Наук СССР. pp. 236–287.
- ^ Панеш, Р.А. (2014). "Военно-политические контакты адыгов с Россией во второй половине XVI в.". Вестник Дагестанского государственного университета. 4: 64–70.
- ^ Гаджимурадов, М.Т. (2013). "Утверждение власти Сасанидов на Восточном Кавказе в раннем Средневековье". Вестник Дагестанского государственного университета. 4: 85–91.
- ^ Броневский, С.М. (1823). Новейшие географические и исторические известия о Кавказе. Москва: Издательство Императорской Академии Наук. p. 375.
- ^ Кабардино-русские отношения. Документы и материалы. Vol. 1. Москва: Издательство Академии Наук СССР. 1957. p. 478.
- ^ Дзамихов, К.Ф. (2001). Адыги в политике России на Кавказе (1550–1770-е гг.). Нальчик: Издательство Кабардино-Балкарского научного центра РАН. p. 412.
- ^ Мальбахов, Б.К. (1994). Средневековая Кабарда. Нальчик: Издательство Эльбрус. p. 346.
- ^ Альвин Каспари. "Покоренный Кавказ".
Further reading
edit- Некрасов А.М. Международные отношения и народы Западного Кавказа (последняя четверть XV – первая половина XVI в.). – М., 1990 – 128 с.
- Дзамихов К.Ф. Адыги в политике России на Кавказе (1550–1770-е гг.). – Нальчик, 2001 – 412 с.
- Гаджимурадов М.Т. Утверждение власти Сасанидов на Восточном Кавказе в раннем Средневековье // Вестник Дагестанского государственного университета. – 2013. – Вып. 4. – С. 85–91.