The Sabanê language is one of the three major groups of languages spoken in the Nambikwara family. The groups of people who speak this language were located in the extreme north of the Nambikwara territory in the Rondônia and Mato Grosso states of western Brazil, between the Tenente Marques River and Juruena River.[2] Today, most members of the group are found in the Pyreneus de Souza Indigenous Territory in the state of Rondonia.[2]
| Sabanê | |
|---|---|
| Native to | Brazil |
| Region | Rondônia |
| Ethnicity | 40 (2007)[1] |
Native speakers | 3 (2004)[1] |
Nambikwaran
| |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | sae |
| Glottolog | saba1268 |
| ELP | Sabané |
Currently, there are less than 5 native speakers of the Sabanê language, with all the speakers being more than 50 years old.[3] With no apparent transmission level, this language is considered as highly endangered when compared to the other two Nambikwara languages which have higher levels of transmission and preservation.[4]
History
editAmongst the languages in the Nambikwara family, the Sabanê people have the smallest population size.[4] During World War II, many Nambikwara territories suffered from invasions brought about by the search for rubber to supply the war.[5] The installation of tappers resulted in the Nambikwara people being forced into hard labour. Many of the Sabanê people were amongst those forced to provide food crops for the tappers. Due to harsh working conditions, many of the Sabanê people tried to flee to the forest, however this action was met with violent retaliation from the tappers who would return them to the village and murder multiple leaders.[5] In addition, Sabanê people suffered from epidemics brought on by contact with the invaders of their land. This led to an immense loss of lives bringing the Sabanê people close to extinction.[4] Around 1930, the arrival of the Jesuit Missionaries in the Cerrado region brought formal education to the Nambikwara region. By the beginning of 1940, there was the first school called “Irmãzinhas da Imaculada Conceição”, where small groups of children learned to read and write. Consequently, with arrival of rubber tappers many roads began to open near the Nambikwara villages, which allowed for the formalization of indigenous education.[6]
Language Family
editThe Nambikwara linguistic family has no known relationships with any other South American linguistic families. The word Nambikwara, Tupi in origin and meaning pierced ear, was designated to the people occupying the northwest Mato Grosso and the border areas of Rondônia. Along with Sabanê, it includes the Southern and Northern Nambikwara languages. These three branches of Nambikwara further include more than fifteen languages and dialects.[3] Unlike Sabanê, Northern and Southern Nambikwara languages are well preserved with the Southern Nambikwara language having the highest level of transmission, with all its people being speakers of the language.[4]
Linguistic Origins and Literature
editThe first mention of the Sabanê people being described using this very distinction occurred in 1914, in an account from Cândido Rondon, a Brazilian explorer of Indigenous and Portuguese descent, while building a telegraph line through Nambikwaran land.[3] Linguistic documentation did not occur until Claude Lévi-Strauss, a philosopher on a French cultural expedition did so in 1948. While there was documentation of the language concerning classification done in 1919 by Edgar Roquette-Pinto, and again in 1948 by Rondon and Faria, these two reports did not include any linguistic details.[3] Levi-Strauss however created a word list, comprising fifty-six words, and began to describe the morphology and phonology of Sabanê in some detail. Levi-Strauss concluded that it was not possible to determine at that point whether Sabanê belonged to the Nambikwara family given significant morphological and phonological differences with the other Nambikwara languages.[3] In the following years, Sabanê appeared in some comparative analyses and more developed documentation of the linguistics of Sabanê emerged from this. The most notable of these comparative studies comes from David Price, from the University of Brasília in 1978, who described the phonology of Nambikwara languages in comparison to one another.[3]
Pedagogical Grammar
editA comprehensive linguistic description focusing exclusively on Sabanê did not emerge until Gabriel Antunes de Araujo's A Grammar of Sabanê, in 2004. Antunes de Araujo is a linguist and professor at the University of São Paulo. This book includes an extensive description of the phonology, morphology, syntax, adverbs, and interrogative words of the Sabanê language, along with some general historical and cultural information on the Sabanê people. Antunes de Araujo's work remains the most comprehensive and complete documentation of the Sabanê language, and was sponsored by CAPES (Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior), a body of the Brazilian government, as well as WOTRO, a Dutch organization.[3] Another notable documentation of the Sabanê language, Levi-Straus’ work, was supported by the French government.[3]
Ethnography
editThere have also been some (however very few) ethnographies on the Sabanê people- one of the most prominent being by Edwin Reesink in 2004, that primarily focuses on the cultural implications of names and naming in Sabanê culture, and was also sponsored by WOTRO.[5] This lack of documentation and information tends to be significant for Sabanê culture and language; while it appears in a number of works, it is usually only mentioned with very little information provided.
Phonology
editSabanê has 16 phonemes — 11 consonants and 5 vowels. Each has different allophones.[3]
Consonants
editSabanê's 11 consonants are shown in the table below.
| Bilabial | Alveolar | Velar | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Stops | plain | p | t | k | ʔ |
| implosive | ɓ | ɗ | |||
| Nasals | m | n | |||
| Fricatives | s | h | |||
| Laterals | l | ||||
The consonants used in Sabanê are similar to those for the Northern Nambikwara languages, although there are no implosives in Latundê. However, the Southern Nambikwara languages have different phonemes such as glottalized and aspirated consonants as wells as only one implosive /ɗ/ and one affricate /tʃ/.[3]
Vowels
editSabanê has 5 phonemic vowels, listed in the table below.[3]
| Front | Central | Back | |
|---|---|---|---|
| High | i | u | |
| Mid | e | o | |
| Low | a |
Once again the vowels used in Sabanê are similar to Northern Nambikwara, but vary when compared to Southern Nambikwara. Southern Nambikwara has a much larger vowel inventory, including creaky and nasal vowels.[3]
Morphology
editThe roots of nouns in Sabanê can only exist as parts of larger words (they are bound morphemes), and must be followed either by a referential suffix in isolation or by a referential or derivational suffix in context. There is no system for identifying a noun's gender morphologically, so gender must be inferred or indicated lexically. This is also the case for age and numbers. Possessive pronouns are not required. Compounding is used frequently, with the combined meanings of the individual words often being very different from the meaning of the final compound. There are seven different classifiers for nouns.[3]
The verbal theme is composed of a verbal root and verbal suffix, however these verbal suffixes can be attached to adjectives and numerals to make them verbal adjectives and verbal numerals. That being said, adjectives are actually considered verbs due to structural similarity. Morphemes are used to indicate an imminent action, while suffixes are used to indicate supposition, hearsay desire, and negation. Sentences can be either assertive, interrogative, or imperative. While the assertive and interrogative moods are marked by suffixes, the imperative mood is unmarked.[3]
Pronouns
editSubject personal pronouns are mandatory in the absence of a nominal subject. There are two classes of personal pronouns: subject pronouns, which are free morphemes except for pi- and object pronouns, which are bound morphemes.[3]
| Person | Subject | Object | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Before vowels and glides | Before consonants | ||
| 1st person | towali | t- | ta- |
| 2nd person | uli | m- | ma- |
| 3rd person | a- | ||
| 1st person plural | pi- | p- | pi- |
| 2nd person plural | uli | m- | ma- |
| 3rd person plural | a- | ||
In Sabanê the pronouns uli and towali are free morphemes which means that they do not appear affixed to the verb.[3]
The pronouns p-, m-, t-, a- and pi-, ma-, ta-, are all bound morphemes, therefore they appear prefixed on the verb.[3]
Note that in Sabanê, the third person singular and plural subject are not phonologically expressed. The third person singular and plural object are only phonologically expressed when the verb begins with a consonant.[3] (As seen below)
Negation of Verbs in Sabanê
editIn the Sabanê language, negation of a verb is not marked by a single word on its own like languages such as English or Portuguese. Instead, negation is marked by the particle -mi(si)na which is suffixed to the verbal theme. Because this particle is affixed to the verb it cannot stand by itself. Generally, the shorter form -mina is used more often that the longer form -misina.[3]
However, in cases where the progressive suffix -say is used, -mi(si)na can optionally occur after this progressive suffix instead of after the verbal suffix. Native speakers do this switching, but the meaning of the sentence does not change.[3]
Negation in the imperative mood is similarly obtained, by which the negative particle is suffixed to the verbal theme.[3]
Lastly, because -mi(si)na is a bound morpheme it can not grammatically form a sentence. This means that when responding to a question negatively, a full sentence must be constructed.[3]
- Question:
- Grammatical answer:
- Ungrammatical answer:
Oppositional morphological marking of assertive and interrogative sentences
editMost languages in the world do not morphologically express an opposition between assertive and interrogative sentences. That being said, Sabanê uses an assertive suffix (-i), and an interrogative suffix (-a), attached to neutral tense forms of verbs.[3]
While the few languages that do express a morphological opposition for assertive and interrogative sentences, they typically leave the assertive unmarked, while Sabanê marks both the assertive and the interrogative. The suffixes used to mark these ‘moods’ occupy the same syntactic slot, so the use of one suffix excludes the use of the other. In Sabanê the interrogative suffix must occur with a question word, such as ‘who’ or ‘what’.[3]
Syntax
editCase and Agreement
editIn order to discuss Sabanê's case system, it is first important to define certain terms used to represent arguments of differing roles, and how they are used to classify case systems. These three terms are S, A, and P. S is used to describe the only nominal argument of a single-argument clause.[17] A and P are used within multi-argument clauses however, with A describing the most-agent like argument and P describing the most patient-like argument. In Sabanê, patient S arguments of some intransitive verbs are marked the same as P arguments of transitive sentences, being marked by a -k.[3] Conversely, A arguments as well as S arguments of transitive sentences are not marked.[3] Given these conditions of Sabanê's system, it is categorized as Split Intransitive.[3] A Split Intransitive case system is described as a system in which some S arguments are marked like transitive P arguments, while others are marked like transitive A arguments. The evolutionary process of this kind of system is typically made up of several successive developments over time, however given the lack of data for Sabanê the development of its particular split intransitivity is not known.[3] The following examples are examples of the presence and absence of markings for S, A, and P arguments in Sabanê.
- Patient S argument of intransitive verb (marked with -k)
- S argument of transitive verb unmarked
- A argument of transitive sentence
Manoel
Manoel
t-
1OBJ-
osa
to give
-n
-VS
-ntal
-PRET.NEUT
-i
-ASSR
anose
bowl
-mi
-REF
‘Manoel gave me a bowl.’ [19]
Agentive pronouns are used in Sabanê to mark volitional verbs (controlled actions), while patientive pronouns are used to mark non-volitional verbs (uncontrolled actions). Below is a table of the agentive and patientive pronouns in Sabanê.[3]
| agentive | patientive | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| before vowels and glides | before consonants | ||
| 1st person | towali | t- | ta- |
| plural | pi- | p- | pi- |
| 2nd person | uli | m- | ma- |
| 3rd person | a- | ||
While Sabane exhibits a split intransitive case system, this system has some specific rules. Objects expressed by nouns in transitive sentences must be marked by -k, and if it expressed by a pronoun the pronoun must be patientive.[3] Subjects in transitive sentences are unmarked if they are a proper noun and the object is marked by -k.
Agreement markers in Sabanê do not exist, shown particularly through the lack of grammatical gender, and lack of morphological opposition between animate and inanimate objects.[3]
Semantics
editTense Structure
editIn Sabane, all sentences must include a tense morpheme, with the exception of sentences in the imperative mood.[3] Unlike many other Brazilian languages, Sabane consists of three tenses: the past, the present and the future. These tense morphemes are bound morphemes (suffixes) that appear after the verbal theme or other verbal suffixes in a sentence. Additionally, in Sabane evidentiality and tense are combined into a single morpheme. This means that this language distinguishes between evidential events (sensory or inferential) and non-evidential/ neutral events (neutral or inferred neutral), which is all marked with tense.[3]
- Note: the assertive morpheme -i or the interrogative morpheme -a can only be used to mark neutral tense.
| Evidential | Tense/Neutral | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sensory | Inferential | Neutral | Inferred Neutral | |
| Preterit | -datinan | -tika | -ntal | -np |
| Present | -dana | -al | ||
| Future | -telon | -tapanal | ||
The Past
editThe past consists of four forms, which are morphologically marked and based on evidentiality and non evidentiality.
-ntal assumes neutrality in the sentence.
-np is used when the speaker believes that an event could have happened based on inference.
-datinan is used when the hearer concludes that the sentence is factual based on the speaker's availability of sensory evidence.
-tika is used when the speaker uses hearsay evidence for the factuality of an event. -tika is only found in sentences preceding evidential sentences.
may
to walk
-i
-VS
-mina
-NEG
-tika
-PAST.INFR
towali
1SUBJ
ay
to go
-i
-VS
-telon
-FUT.EV
‘He did not arrive (because of the fact that) I am leaving.’ [25]
The distinction between recent past (today) and less recent pass (yesterday and beyond) is expressed by using the adverbs ileypelu ‘today’ and ileytika ‘yesterday’.
The Present
editThere are two morphemes that are used to mark present tense in Sabane:
- -al is used for the present neutral
- -dana is used for the present evidential
-al assumes neutrality in the sentence
-dana is used to infer factuality of the sentence and implies that there is sensory evidence
The Future
editThere are two morphemes that are used to mark future tense in Sabane:
- -tapanal is used for the neutral future
- -telon is used for the evidential future
-tapanal can only be used in a non-factual or elicited sentence
-telon can only be used in a sentence in which the speaker is confident regarding its factuality
Vocabulary
editPlant and animal names
editSelected Sabanê plant and animal names from Antunes (2004):[3]
Sabanê Scientific name English name Portuguese name akona Magonia pubescens tingüi tree tingüi akukuʔ Cerdocyon thous Brazilian wild dog cachorro do mato ali Bradypus tridactylus sloth macaco-preguiça alowa Bactris setosa jucum tree jucum aynasapa Hancornia speciosa mangaba fruit mangaba aʔoluʔ Dasypus novemcinctus tatu-galinha, an armadillo species tatu-galinha bisikuli Eunectes murinus anaconda sucuriju dalama Oenocarpus bataua batava palm patoá doda Tayassu pecari white-lipped peccary queixada kiayleli Tayassu pecari white-lipped peccary queixada hakonata Spaeleoleptes spaeleus harvestman opilião, olupião halakata Caryocar brasiliense pequi tree pequi (árvore) halasapa Caryocar brasiliense pequi fruit pequi (fruta) haybakata Dialium guianense pororoca tree jutai-pororoca hieynakata Oenocarpus bacaba kumbu palm bacaba (árvore) hieynasi Oenocarpus bacaba bacaba fruit bacaba (fruta) holokalikata Attalea phalerata urucuri palm acuri ila Ateles sp. spider-monkey macaco-aranha ilunakata Caryocar brasiliense wild pequi pequi ilunasi Caryocar brasiliense wild pequi nut pequi (fruto) ineyla Metynnis maculatus spotted pacu (fish) pacu iwimata Tetragonisca angustula jatai bee jataí kali Ceratophrys ornata horned frog sapo-boi kamanasi Atta sexdens female ant tanajura kanaysi Capsicum frutescens pepper pimenta kapiʔ Nasua nasua coati quati kapune Cuniculus paca paca paca kayno Carapus fasciatus tuvira fish tuvira kaynomoka Gymnotus carapo catfish sarapó kela Ara ararauna blue and yellow macaw arara-amarela kiawa Chordeiles, Podager bacurau bird bacurau kiluma Testudo tabulata jabuti jabuti kina Tunga penetrans sand flea bicho-de-pé kita Socratea exorrhiza rasp palm paxiúba kiwkiw Solenopsis saevissima fireant formiga-lava-pés kokwayli Mazama americana deer veado koluma Typhlonectes compressicauda caecilian cobra-cega kowayiti Hirundo rustica swallow andorinha kowayitipan Progne chalybea domestica gray-breasted martin andorinha-azul kuli Myoprocta acouchy agouti cutia kulima Amburana cearensis cerejeira tree cerejeira malasi Penelope superciliaris jacucaca rusty-margined guan jacucaca misa Maximiliana regia inaja palm inajá misakata Maximiliana regia inaja palm tree inajá (árvore) misasapa Maximiliana regia inaja palm nut inajá (fruto) misasi Maximiliana regia inaja palm seed inajá (semente) mukunapi Enterolobium contortisiliquum earpod tree timbó mulula Priodontes giganteus giant armadillo tatu-canastra nutupiʔ Bixa orellana urucu urucu olopa Apis mellifera European bee abelha-mel oluma Tapirus terrestris tapir anta ota Guilelma speciosa peach palm siriva owayli Ozotoceros bezoarticus red deer veado-campeiro oya Mauritia vinifera buriti palm buriti pasika Brycon matrinchao matrinxã fish matrinxã pawla Pterophyllum cará fish cará piowla Hoplias malabaricus wolf fish traíra puwisa Crax globulosa wattled curassow mutum salaymulita Pyrilia barrabandi curica bird curica sapa Piscidia erythrina woody wine, Jamaica dogwood timbó siliko Eigenmannia trilineata tuvira rajada fish tuvira rajada sopa Esenbeckia leiocarpa Brazilian boxwood guarantã (árvore) sowaw Lebistes reticulatus rainbow fish piaba sowawsi Leporinus elongatus piapara fish piau sopa Esenbeckia leiocarpa Brazilian boxwood tree guarantã takipa Cebuella pygmaea marmoset sauim talama Tupinambis teguixin teju calangão talawa Ara chloroptera red macaw arara-vermelha tapayli Renealmia exaltata pacoba tree pacova tapaytapay Corallus caninus emerald tree boa cobra-papagaio tokaliʔ Bertholletia excelsa Brazilian nut tree castanheira tomuʔtomuʔ Penelope jacucaca white-browed guan jacucaca grande totaliʔ Tolypeutes tricinctus three-banded armadillo tatu-bola towakaliʔ red-head cayman jacaré da cabeça vermelha tutinakapawli Aratinga jandaya jandaya parakeet jandaí ulila Tamandua tetradactyla lesser ant-eater tamanduá-mirim ulima Ficus anthelmintica caxinguba tree caxinguba ulumusuʔ Columbina minuta dove rolinha, pomba ulununuʔ Cebus capucinus white-faced capuchin macaco capuchino uma Hydrochoerus capybara capybara capivara upa Tinamus solitarius macuca bird macuco ute Eira barbara tayra irara uykilapita Lagothrix lagotricha big bellied woolly monkey macaco-barrigudo wakawlu Casmerodius albus egretta heron cegonha walawaka Ara macao red and blue macaw araracanga walawka Leporinus macrocephalus piauçu fish piauçu walayena Ramphastos toco toucan tucano walaynunu Egretta garzetta little egret garça wani Meleagris gallopavo turkey wanisi Rhea americana rhea ema wawawsi Trigona spinipes arapuã arapuã waylinawa Lutra platensis otter lontra waylinun Pteronura brasiliensis beaver ariranha waypulukata Campomanesia xanthocarpa gabiroba tree gabiroba (árvore) waypulusapa Campomanesia xanthocarpa gabiroba fruit gabiroba (fruta) waysili Euterpe precatoria assai palm açaí wayulupi Chrysocyon brachyurus cat; guara-wolf lobo-guará wayulutapayli Panthera onca spotted jaguar onça-pintada wialakata, mialakata Hymenaea courbaril jatoba tree jatobá (árvore) wialasapa, mialasapa Hymenaea courbaril jatoba fruit jatobá (fruta) wiawlu Tinamus sp. tinamou bird nambu yalawoka Maranta arundinacea arrowroot araruta yalay Euphractus sexcinctus peludo armadillo tatu-peba yamotoka Constrictor constrictor boa jibóia yeyeyla Pitangus sulphuratus great kiskadee bem-te-vi yolola Inga edulis ice cream bean tree ingá yomotokamoka Bothrops jararaca viper jararaca yoto Astrocaryum aculeatum star-nut palm tucum, tucumã yowayli Didelphis marsupialis opossum gambá yowitakata Saccharum officinarum sugar cane cana-de-açúcar yubana Colocasia esculenta taro taioba
References
edit- ^ a b Sabanê at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
- ^ a b Miller, Joana. (2008). "Povos Indigenas No Brasil, Instituto Sociambiental". Instituto Socioambiental.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah Antunes de Araujo 2004.
- ^ a b c d Moore, D. (2006). "Brazil:Language Situation". Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. Elsevier Ltd. pp. 117–128. doi:10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01855-1. ISBN 9780080448541.
- ^ a b c Reesink, E.B. (2010). "An Introduction To Three Nambikwara Ethnohistories". Rozenberg Publishers.
- ^ Saramago de Souza, Ilma; Bruno, Marilda (2012). "O povo sabanê e o processo civilizador: algumas reflexões sobre o lugar da educação formal indígena" [The Sabanê people and the civilizing process: some reflections on the place of formal education] (PDF) (in Portuguese).
- ^ Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 160.
- ^ a b Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 128.
- ^ Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 171.
- ^ Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 173.
- ^ Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 198.
- ^ Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 134.
- ^ Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 135.
- ^ Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 136.
- ^ a b c Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 137.
- ^ a b Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 205.
- ^ Payne, Thomas (1997). Describing Morphosyntax: A Guide for Field Linguistics. England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521588057.
- ^ a b Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 178.
- ^ Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 176.
- ^ Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 179, Table 18.
- ^ Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 138-139, Table 13, Table 14.
- ^ a b Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 141.
- ^ a b Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 143.
- ^ Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 142.
- ^ a b c d Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 144.
- ^ a b Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 145.
- ^ Antunes de Araujo 2004, p. 146.
- Antunes de Araujo, Gabriel (2004). A Grammar of Sabanê: a Nambikwara Language (PDF) (PhD thesis). Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam: LOT publications. ISBN 90-76864-59-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on Jul 9, 2020.