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Sahaptin language

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Sahaptin (suh-HAP-tin), also called Ichishkiin (ih-chis-KEEN; Umatilla: Čiškíin, Yakama: Ichishkíin Sɨ́nwit), is one of the two-language Sahaptian branch of the Plateau Penutian family spoken in a section of the northwestern plateau along the Columbia River and its tributaries in southern Washington, northern Oregon, and southwestern Idaho, in the United States;[2] the other language is Nez Perce (Niimi'ipuutímt).

Sahaptin
Ichiskiin
  • Čiškíin
  • Ichishkíin
Native toUnited States
RegionWashington, Oregon, and Idaho
Ethnicity10,000 Sahaptins (1977)[1]
Native speakers
100–125 (2007)[1]
Language codes
ISO 639-3Variously:
uma – Umatilla
waa – Walla Walla
yak – Yakama
tqn – Tenino
qot Sahaptin
Glottologsaha1240
ELPSahaptin
Sahaptin is classified as Severely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

Sahaptin is spoken by various tribes of the Washington Reservations; Yakama, Warm Springs, Umatilla; and also spoken in many smaller communities such as Celilo, Oregon.

The Yakama Nation tribal cultural resources program has been promoting the use of their traditional name of the language, Ichishkíin Sɨ́nwit ('this language'), instead of the Salish-derived name Sahaptin.[3]

Name

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Sahaptin is typically known as Ichiskiin in its various dialects.[4] In the Yakama dialect, it is called Ichishkíin Sɨ́nwit, spelled variously Ichishkíin, Íchishkin, Íchishkink, or Chishkíin.[5] In the Umatilla dialect, it is called Čiškíin or Ičiškíin.[6]

The words Sahaptin, Shahaptin, and Sahaptian are derived from the Columbia-Moses name for the Nez Perce, sħáptənəxʷ.[7] Cognates appear in other Interior Salishan languages, such as Okanagan sʕaptnx 'Nez Perce'[8] or Spokane saʕáptni 'Nez Perce',[9] indictating the ancient age of the ethnonym. The name Sahaptin has also been spelled "Shahaptin", "Sahapten", "Shahaptian", and "Shawpatin".[10]

The first usage of the word "Sahaptin" dates to 1811, in the journal of fur trader David Thompson, who wrote of the "Chief of all the Shawpatin Tribes", referring to the Nez Perce. At the time, "Sahaptin" (and variants) was used to refer to the Nez Perce, while "Walla Walla" was used to refer to the Sahaptin-speaking peoples. Alexander Ross visited a large camp on the Walla Walla River later that year, identifying "the Walla-Wallas, the Shaw Haptens, and the Cajouses". In 1844, Horatio Hale wrote of the "Sahaptin or Nez-Perces" language and the "Walawala" language. At the same time, the Snake River was also sometimes called the Sahaptin River, because it led from the Columbia River to the country of the Nez Perce.[10]

In the 1960s, the name "Sahaptin" was used by linguists, but it was rare for Sahaptin speakers to even be aware of the term. Most speakers used the terms Ichishkínk (Yakama) or Chishkín (Walla Walla and Umatilla), which mean literally "in this way/manner".[10][5]

Dialects

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In the Handbook of North American Indians, Sahaptin was split in the following dialects and dialect clusters:[11]

  • Sahaptin
    • Northern Sahaptin
      • Northwest cluster
        • Klikatat
        • Taitnapam (Upper Cowlitz)
        • Upper Nisqually (Mishalpam)
        • Yakima
        • Pshwanwapam
      • Northeast cluster
        • Wanapum
        • Palouse
        • Lower Snake River
        • Chamnapam
        • Wauyukma
        • Naxiyampam
        • Walla Walla (Waluulapam)
    • Southern Sahaptin (Columbia River dialects)
      • Umatilla
      • Rock Creek
      • John Day
      • Celilo (Wyampam)
      • Tenino
      • Tygh Valley

Phonology

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The charts of consonants and vowels below are used in the Yakima Sahaptin (Ichishkiin) language:[12]

Consonants

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Bilabial Alveolar (Alveolo-)
palatal 		Velar Uvular Glottal
plain sibilant lateral plain labial plain labial
Plosive/
Affricate 		plain p t ts tɬ tʃ k kʷ q qʷ ʔ
ejective pʼ tʼ tsʼ tɬʼ tʃʼ kʼ kʷʼ qʼ qʷʼ
Fricative s ɬ ʃ x xʷ χ χʷ h
Nasal m n
Approximant l j w

Vowels

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Front Central Back
High i iː ɨ u uː
Low a aː

Vowels can also be accented (e.g. /á/).

Writing system

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This writing system is used for Umatilla Sahaptin.

Sahaptin alphabet (Umatilla) [13]
ˀ a c c̓ č č̓ h i ɨ k k̓ kʷ
k̓ʷ l ł m n p p̓ q q̓ qʷ q̓ʷ s
š t t̓ ƛ ƛ̓ u w x x̣ xʷ x̣ʷ y

Other works use the Yakima practical alphabet.[12]

Grammar

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There are published grammars,[14][11] a recent dictionary,[3] and a corpus of published texts.[15][16]

Sahaptin has a split ergative syntax, with direct-inverse voicing and several applicative constructions.[17]

The ergative case inflects third-person nominals only when the direct object is first- or second-person (the examples below are from the Umatilla dialect):

i-

3.NOM-

q̓ínu

see

-šana

-ASP

yáka

bear

paanáy

3SG.ACC

i- q̓ínu -šana yáka paanáy

3.NOM- see -ASP bear 3SG.ACC

'the bear saw him'

i-

3.NOM-

q̓ínu

see

-šana

-ASP

=aš

=1SG

yáka

bear

-nɨm

-ERG

i- q̓ínu -šana =aš yáka -nɨm

3.NOM- see -ASP =1SG bear -ERG

'the bear saw me'

The direct-inverse contrast can be elicited with examples such as the following. In the inverse, the transitive direct object is coreferential with the subject in the preceding clause.

Direct Inverse

wínš

man

i-

3.NOM-

q̓ínu

see

-šana

-ASP

wapaanłá

grizzly

-an

-ACC

ku

and

i-

3.NOM-

ʔíƛ̓iyawi

kill

-ya

-PST

paanáy

3SG.ACC

wínš i- q̓ínu -šana wapaanłá -an ku i- ʔíƛ̓iyawi -ya paanáy

man 3.NOM- see -ASP grizzly -ACC and 3.NOM- kill -PST 3SG.ACC

'the man saw the grizzly and he killed it'

wínš

man

i-

3.NOM-

q̓ínu

see

-šana

-ASP

wapaanłá

grizzly

-an

-ACC

ku

and

pá-

INV-

ʔiƛ̓iyawi

kill

-ya

-PST

wínš i- q̓ínu -šana wapaanłá -an ku pá- ʔiƛ̓iyawi -ya

man 3.NOM- see -ASP grizzly -ACC and INV- kill -PST

'the man saw the grizzly and it killed him'

The inverse (marked by the verbal prefix pá-) retains its transitive status, and a patient nominal is case marked accusative.

ku

and

pá-

INV-

ʔiƛ̓iyawi

kill

-ya

-PST

wínš

man

-na

-ACC

ku pá- ʔiƛ̓iyawi -ya wínš -na

and INV- kill -PST man -ACC

'and it killed the man' (= 'and the man was killed by it')

A semantic inverse is also marked by the same verbal prefix pá-.

Direct Inverse

q̓ínu

see

-šana

-ASP

=maš

=1SG/2SG

q̓ínu -šana =maš

see -ASP =1SG/2SG

'I saw you'

pá-

INV-

q̓inu

see

-šana

-ASP

=nam

=2SG

pá- q̓inu -šana =nam

INV- see -ASP =2SG

'you saw me'

In Speech Act Participant (SAP) and third-person transitive involvement, direction marking is as follows:

Direct Inverse

á-

OBV-

q̓inu

see

-šana

-ASP

=aš

=1SG

paanáy

3SG.ACC

á- q̓inu -šana =aš paanáy

OBV- see -ASP =1SG 3SG.ACC

'I saw him/her/it'

i-

3.NOM-

q̓ínu

see

-šana

-ASP

=aš

=1SG

pɨ́nɨm

3.ERG

i- q̓ínu -šana =aš pɨ́nɨm

3.NOM- see -ASP =1SG 3.ERG

'he/she/it saw me'

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b Umatilla at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
    Walla Walla at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
    Yakama at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
    Tenino at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. ^ Mithun 1999.
  3. ^ a b Beavert & Hargus 2010.
  4. ^ Leonard & Haynes 2010.
  5. ^ a b Beavert & Hargus 2009, p. 38.
  6. ^ "Umatilla Language Online Dictionary". Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
  7. ^ Wassink & Hargus 2020, p. 15.
  8. ^ Okanagan Language Program (2022). nsəlxcin dictionary (PDF). Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation. p. 76.
  9. ^ "Colville-Okanagan Dictionary". meltr.org. Retrieved 2024-09-11.
  10. ^ a b c Rigsby 2009.
  11. ^ a b Rigsby & Rude 1996.
  12. ^ a b Jansen 2010.
  13. ^ Jansen 2010, p. 28-34.
  14. ^ Jacobs 1931.
  15. ^ Jacobs 1929.
  16. ^ Jacobs 1934–1937.
  17. ^ Rude 2009.

Bibliography

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