Silesian grammar

The grammar of the Silesian language is characterized by a high degree of inflection, and has relatively free word order, although the dominant arrangement is subject–verb–object (SVO). There commonly are no articles, and there is frequent dropping of subject pronouns. Distinctive features include the different treatment of masculine personal nouns in the plural, and the complex grammar of numerals and quantifiers.

Regular morphological alternation

Silesian exhibits regular consonant and vowel alteration that can be found across Slavic languages and more specifically Lechitic languages. These include the Slavic palatalizations, as well as vowel alterations result from historic "pochylone" or "slanted" vowels, which were the result from historically long vowels.

Nouns

Silesian retains the Slavic system of cases for nouns, pronouns, and adjectives. There are seven cases: nominative (mianownik), genitive (dopołniŏcz), dative (cylownik), accusative (biernik), vocative (wołŏcz), locative (miyjscownik), and instrumental (nŏrzyndnik).

Number

Silesian has two number classes: singular and plural.

A few nouns display irregularities resulting from a fossilized dual form, namely in:

body parts that naturally come in pairs have synchronically irregular plural and other forms
- ôko ("eye") – pl. ôczy
- rynka ("hand, arm") – pl. rynce
- ucho ("ear") – pl. uszy

Gender

Silesian, like other Lechitic languages, has three genders in the singular (masculine mynski, feminine żyński, and neuter nijaki). The masculine gender can be divided into three subgenders, masculine personal (mynski ôsobowy), masculine animal (mynski zwierzyncy), and masculine inanimate (mynski rzeczowy). "Tantum plurale" or "plural only" nouns can be divided into virile (mynskoôsobowego) and non-virile (niymynskoôsobowego).

The following tables show this distinction using as examples the nouns syn 'son' (masc. personal), ptŏk 'bird' (masc. animate), cios 'hit, blow' (masc. inanimate), drōga 'road' (feminine), ciasto 'cake' (neuter). The following table presents examples of how a determiner tyn/ta/to ("this") agrees with nouns of different genders in the nominative and the accusative, both singular and plural. Adjectives inflect similarly to this determiner.


		singular		plural
		nom.	acc.	nom.	acc.
masculine	personal	tyn syn tyn ptŏk tyn cios	tego syna tego ptŏka	ci synowie	tych synōw
	animate		tego syna tego ptŏka	te psy te ciosy te drōgi te ciasta
	inanimate		tyn cios
feminine		ta drōga	tã drōgã
neuter		to ciasto

For verbs, the distinction is only important for past forms in the plural, as in the table below:

		singular	plural
masculine	personal	syn leżoł ptŏk leżoł cios leżoł	synowie leżeli
	animate		ptŏki leżały ciosy leżały drōgi leżały ciasta leżały
	inanimate
feminine		drōga leżała
neuter		ciasto leżało

The numeral dwa ("two"), on the other hand, behaves differently, merging masculine non-personal with neuter, but not with feminine:

		plural
		nom.	acc.
masculine	personal	dwa synowie	dwōch synōw
	animate	dwa ptŏki dwa ciosy dwa ciasta
	inanimate
neuter
feminine		dwie drōgi

Gender can usually be inferred from the ending of a noun.

Masculine:

masculine nouns typically end in a consonant
some nouns, describing people, end in -a, specifically:
- all nouns ending in -sta, equivalent to English "-ist", e.g. gardzista ("guardsman")

Feminine:

feminine nouns typically end in -a
some nouns end in a soft or hardened consonant:
- all abstract nouns ending in -ść, e.g. miyłość ("love")
- some concrete nouns ending in -ść: kiść ("bunch")
- -c: moc ("power"), noc ("night")
- -cz rzecz ("thing")
- -ć: płeć ("sex, gender")
- -dź: łōdź ("boat")
- -j: kolyj ("railway")
- -l: myśl ("thought")
- -ń: jesiyń ("autumn, fall")
- -rz: twŏrz ("face")
- -sz: mysz ("mouse")
- -ś: gynś ("goose")
- -ź: gałōńź ("branch")
- -ż: modziyż ("youth")
- -w: krew ("blood")
words ending in -niŏ and -ni are feminine, e.g. boginiŏ ("goddess"); also pani ("Mrs")

Neuter:

neuter nouns typically end in -o
verbal nouns, which are always neuter, end in -e, e.g. robiynie etc.
Baby animals ending in -ã are always neuter, e.g. cielã ("calf")
Latin loanwords ending in -um : invariable in the singular, declinable in the plural by removing the -um ending and replacing it by neuter plural endings ; the genitive plural is in -ōw contrary to other neuters that have no ending → muzeum, muzea (N. pl.), muzeōw (G. pl.)

Semantic membership

The distinction between personal, animate and inanimate nouns within masculine nouns is largely semantic, although not always.

Personal nouns are comprised by human nouns such as 'man' or chop 'man'.

Animate nouns are largely comprised by animals such as pies ("dog"), many members from other life domains, as well as a number of objects associated with human activity. On the morphological level however, such nouns are only partially similar to animate nouns, having their accusative identical to their genitive only in the singular.

Masculine personal nouns can be "downgraded" to masculine animate nouns, called the deprecative form.

Synowie szli → syny szły (sons were walking).

Plants and objects ending in a consonant are masculine inanimate.

Declension

Declensions are generally divided into hard and soft declensions. Soft declensions are used when the stem of the noun ends in a soft (postalveolar or palatal-like) consonant in all forms, while hard declensions are used by nouns with stems ending in a hard consonant in some (but not necessarily all) forms.

The following generalizations can be made for the inflection of all nouns:

The nominative and vocative plural are always identical.
For neuter nouns, the nominative, accusative and vocative are always identical in both singular and plural.
The accusative of masculine nouns is identical to either the nominative or the genitive.
The locative, dative and instrumental plural almost always have the same endings (-ach, -ōm, -ami/-ōma) no matter how the noun is declined. The form -ōma is used mostly in the north-western part of Silesia.

Declension I

This group comprises nouns ending in -a and -ŏ. This is predominantly feminine nouns, with a few masculine nouns (in the singular).

Class 1

	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
	Hard declension		Soft declension
Nominative (mianownik)	gŏdka, poeta	gŏdki, poety/poeci	kuźnia, granica	kuźnie, granice
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	gŏdki, poety	gŏdek∅, poetōw	kuźnie, granice	kuźniōw/kuźni, granic∅
Dative (cylownik)	gŏdce, poecie	godkōm, poetōm	kuźni, granicy	kuźniōm, granicōm
Accusative (biernik)	gŏdkã, poety/poetã	gŏdki, poetōw	kuźniã, granicã	kuźnie, granice
Vocative (wołŏcz)	gŏdko, poeto	gŏdki, poety/poeci	kuźnio, granico	kuźnie, granice
Locative (miyjscownik)	gŏdce, poecie	gŏdkach, poetach	kuźni, granicy	kuźniach, granicach
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	gŏdkōm, poetōm	gŏdkami/gŏdkōma, poetami/poetōma	kuźniōm, granicōm	kuźniami/kuźniōma, granicami/granicōma

Class 2

	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
	-ijŏ		-yjŏ		-ŏ
Nominative (mianownik)	armijŏ	armije	historyjŏ	historyje	mszŏ	msze
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	armije	armijōw	historyje	historyjōw	msz'y/msze	mszōw
Dative (cylownik)	armiji	armijōm	historyji	historyjōm	mszy	mszōm
Accusative (biernik)	armijõ	armije	historyjõ	historyje	mszõ	msze
Vocative (wołŏcz)	armijo	armije	historyjo	historyje	mszo	msze
Locative (miyjscownik)	armiji	armijach	historyji	historyjach	mszy	mszach
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	armijōm	armijami/armijōma	historyjōm	historyjami/historyjōma	mszōm	mszami/mszōma

^[1]

Declension II

This group comprises nouns ending in -o, -e, and -ã. This group is comprised without exception of neuter nouns.

Class 1

	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
	Hard declension		Soft declension
Nominative (mianownik)	gniŏzdo, pole	gniŏzda, pola	czytanie, życie	czytania, życia
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	gniŏzda, pola	gniŏzd∅/gniŏzdōw, pōl∅	czytaniŏ, życiŏ	czytań∅, żyć∅
Dative (cylownik)	gniŏzdu, polu	gniŏzdōm, polōm	czytaniy, życiu	czytaniōm, życiōm
Accusative (biernik)	gniŏzdo, pole	gniŏzda, pola	czytanie, życie	czytania, życia
Vocative (wołŏcz)	gniŏzdo, polo	gniŏzdy, poly	czytanio, życio	czytanie, życie
Locative (miyjscownik)	gniŏździe, polu	gniŏzdach, polach	czytaniu, życiu	czytaniach, życiach
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	gniŏzdym, polym	gniŏzdami/gniŏzdōma, polami/polōma	czytaniym, życiym	czytaniami/czytaniōma, życiami/życiōma

^[2]

Class 2

	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
	-t- stems		-n- stems
Nominative (mianownik)	cielã	cielynta	ramiã	ramiōna
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	cielyncia	cielynt∅	ramiynia	ramiōn∅
Dative (cylownik)	cielynciu	cielyntōm	ramiyniu	ramiōnōm
Accusative (biernik)	cielã	cielynta	ramiã	ramiōna
Vocative (wołŏcz)	cielã	cielynta	ramiã	ramiōna
Locative (miyjscownik)	cielynciu	cielyntach	ramiyniu	ramiōnach
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	cielynciym	cielyntami/cielyntōma	ramiyniym	ramiōnami/ramiōnōma

^[3]

Declension III

This group comprises nouns ending in consonants and have -u or -a in the genitive singular. This pattern is exclusively masculine nouns, including masculine person, animal, and inanimate.

Class 1

Hard stems

	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
	Masculine personal		Masculine animal
Nominative (mianownik)	bajtel∅	bajtle	kot∅	koty
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	bajtla	bajtli/bajtlōw	kota	kotōw
Dative (cylownik)	bajtlowi	bajtlōm	kotu	kotōm
Accusative (biernik)	bajtla	bajtli/bajtlōw	kota	koty
Vocative (wołŏcz)	bajtlu	bajtle	kocie	koty
Locative (miyjscownik)	bajtlu	bajtlach	kocie	kotach
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	bajtlym	bajtlami/bajtlōma	kotym	kotami/kotōma

^[3]

Soft stems

	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
	Masculine personal		Masculine animal
Nominative (mianownik)	złodziyj∅	złodzieje	kōń∅	kōnie
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	złodzieja	złodzieji/złodziejōw	kōnia	kōni
Dative (cylownik)	złodziejowi	złodziejōm	kōniowi	kōniōm
Accusative (biernik)	złodzieja	złodziejōw	kōnia	kōnie
Vocative (wołŏcz)	złodzieju	złodzieje	kōniu	kōnie
Locative (miyjscownik)	złodzieju	złodziejach	kōniu	kōniach
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	złodziejym	złodziejami/złodziejōma	kōniym	kōniami/kōniōma

^[3]

Class 2

Hard stems

	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
	Masculine inanimate
Nominative (mianownik)	gniyw∅	gniywy	ancug∅	ancugi
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	gniywu	gniywōw	ancuga	ancugōw
Dative (cylownik)	gniywowi	gniywōm	ancugowi	ancugōm
Accusative (biernik)	gniyw∅	gniywy	ancug∅	ancugi
Vocative (wołŏcz)	gniywie	gniywy	ancugu	ancugi
Locative (miyjscownik)	gniywie	gniywach	ancugu	ancugach
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	gniywym	gniywami/gniywōma	ancugiym	ancugami/ancugōma

^[4]

Soft stems

	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
	Masculine inanimate
Nominative (mianownik)	grzebiyn∅	grzebiynie	kafyj∅	kafyje
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	grzebiynia	grzebiynii	kafyju	kafyjōw
Dative (cylownik)	grzebiyniowi	grzebiyniōm	kafyjowi	kafyjōm
Accusative (biernik)	grzebiyń∅	grzebiynie	kafyj∅	kafyje
Vocative (wołŏcz)	grzebiyniu	grzebiynie	kafyju	kafyje
Locative (miyjscownik)	grzebiyniu	grzebiyniach	kafyju	kafyjach
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	grzebiyniym	grzebiyniami/grzebiyniōma	kafyjym	kafyjami/kafyjōma

^[4]

Declension IV

This group comprises nouns ending in -∅ have -i/-y or -e in the genitive singular. This is exclusively feminine nouns.

	Singular	Plural
	Soft declension
Nominative (mianownik)	jakość∅, jesiyń∅, mysz∅, krew∅	jakości, jesiynie, myszy, krwie
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	jakości, jesiyni, mysz∅, krwie	jakości, jesiyni, myszy, krwi
Dative (cylownik)	jakości, jesiyni, myszy, krwi	jakościōm, jesiyniōm, myszōm, krwiōm
Accusative (biernik)	jakość∅, jesiyń∅, mysz∅, krew∅	jakości, jesiynie, myszy, krwie
Vocative (wołŏcz)	jakości, jesiyni, myszy, krwi	jakości, jesiynie, myszy, krwie
Locative (miyjscownik)	jakości, jesiyni, myszy, krwi	jakościach, jesiyniach, myszach, krwiach
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	jakościōm, jesiyniōm, myszōm, krwiōm	jakościami/jakościōma, jesiyniami/jesiyniōma, myszami/myszōma, krwiami/krwiōma

^[4]

Declension V

This group comprises nouns with adjectival declension, and can be masculine or feminine, taking the appropriate gender ending. See adjectives and adverbs.

Declension VI

This group comprises nouns ending in -um in the singular and neuter declensions in the plural. Nouns in this group are neuter.

Class I

	Singular	Plural
	Soft declension
Nominative (mianownik)	muzeum∅, cyntrum∅	muzea, cyntra
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	muzeum∅, cyntrum∅	muzeōw, cyntrōw
Dative (cylownik)	muzeum∅, cyntrum∅	muzeōm, cyntrōm
Accusative (biernik)	muzeum∅, cyntrum∅	muzea, cyntra
Vocative (wołŏcz)	muzeum∅, cyntrum∅	muzea, cyntra
Locative (miyjscownik)	muzeum∅, cyntrum∅	muzeach, cyntrach
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	muzeum∅, cyntrum∅	muzeami/muzeōma, cyntrami/cyntrōma

^[5]

Class 2

	Plural
	Soft declension
Nominative (mianownik)	pleca, bryle, spodniŏki, galŏty
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	plecōw/plyc∅, bryli/brylōw, spodniŏkōw, galŏt∅/galŏtōw
Dative (cylownik)	plecōm, brylōm, spodniŏkōm, galŏtōm
Accusative (biernik)	pleca, bryle, spodniŏki, galŏty
Vocative (wołŏcz)	pleca, bryle, spodniŏki, galŏty
Locative (miyjscownik)	plecach, brylach, spodniŏkach, galŏtach
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	plecami/plecōma, brylami/brylōma, spodniŏkami/spodniŏkōma, galŏtami/galŏtōma

^[5]

Adjectives and adverbs

Adjectives agree with the noun they modify in terms of gender, number and case. In the nominative masculine virile plural the stem undergoes a softening change, e.g.

-ry → -rzi
-ki → -cy
-gi → -dzy
-ty → -ci
-dy → -dzi
-ny → -ni

Class 1

Hard stems

Case	Singular number				Plural number
Case	Masculine animate mynski ôsobowy	Masculine inanimate mynski rzeczowy	Neuter nijaki	Feminine żyński	Masculine personal mynskoôsobowy	Not masculine personal niymynskoôsobowy, i.e. masculine impersonal, feminine, and neutral
Nominative (mianownik)	chory		chore	chorŏ	chorzi	chore
Vocative (wołŏcz)	chory			chorŏ	chorzi
Accusative (biernik)	chorego	chory		chorõ	chorych
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	chorym			chorōm	chorymi
Locative (miyjscownik)	chorym			choryj	chorych
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	chorego				chorych
Dative (cylownik)	chorymu				chorym

^[6]

Class 2

Soft stems

Case	Singular number				Plural number
Case	Masculine animate mynski ôsobowy	Masculine inanimate mynski rzeczowy	Neuter nijaki	Feminine żyński	Masculine personal mynskoôsobowy	Not masculine personal niymynskoôsobowy, i.e. masculine impersonal, feminine, and neutral
Nominative (mianownik)	wysoki		wysokie	wysokŏ	wysocy	wysokie
Vocative (wołŏcz)	wysoki			wysokŏ	wysocy
Accusative (biernik)	wysokigo	wysoki		wysokõ	wysokich
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	wysokim			wysokōm	wysokimi
Locative (miyjscownik)	wysokim			wysokij	wysokich
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	wysokigo				wysokich
Dative (cylownik)	wysokimu				wysokim

^[7]

Most short non-relational adjectives have a comparative form in -szy or -iejszy, (e.g. dugy → dugszy and a superlative obtained by prefixing noj- to the comparative (e.g. dugszy → nojdugszy. For adjectives that do not have these forms, the words barzij ("more") and nojbarzij ("most") are used before the adjective to make comparative and superlative phrases.

Adverbs are formed from adjectives with the ending ie, or in some cases -o (e.g. dugi → dugo. Comparatives of adverbs are formed (where they exist) with the ending -(i)yj (e.g. dugo → dużyj). Superlatives have the prefix noj- as for adjectives (dużyj → nojdużyj).

Pronouns

The personal pronouns of Silesian (nominative forms) are jŏ ("I"), ty ("you", singular, familiar), ŏn ("he", or "it" corresponding to masculine nouns), ŏna ("she", or "it" corresponding to feminine nouns), ŏno ("it" corresponding to neuter nouns), my ("we"), wy ("you", plural, familiar), ŏni (virile "they" – see Noun syntax below), ŏne (non-virile "they").

The polite second-person pronouns are the same as the nouns pōn ("gentleman, Mr"), pani ("lady, Mrs") and their plurals panowie, panie. The mixed-sex plural is państwo. All second-person pronouns are often capitalized for politeness, in letters etc.

Case	Singular							Plural
	1st	2nd			3rd			1st	2nd				3rd
		fam.	polite		masc.	neut.	fem.		fam.	polite			masc. pers.	non- masc.
		fam.	masc.	fem.	masc.	neut.	fem.		fam.	masc.	epic.	fem.	masc. pers.	non- masc.
Nominative/vocative (mianownik/wołŏcz)	jŏ	ty	pōn	pani	ôn	ôno	ôna	my	wy	panowie	państwo	panie	ôni	ône
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	mie	ciebie/ciã/cie	pana	pani	ônego/niego/(je)go	ônego/niego/(je)go	ônyj/nij/jij	nŏs	wŏs	panów	państwa	pań	ônych/(n)ich	ônych/(n)ich
Dative (cylownik)	mie mi	ciebie ci	panu panowi	pani	ônymu/niymu/(jy)mu	ônymu/niymu/(jy)mu	ônyj nij jij	nōm	wōm	panōm	państwie	paniōm	ônym/(n)im	ônym/(n)im
Accusative (biernik)	mie	ciebie/ciã/cie	pana	pani	ônego/niego/(je)go	ônego/niego/(je)go	jōm niã	nŏs	wŏs	panōw	państwo	panie	ônym/nim	ônym/nim
Locative (miyjscownik)	mie	ciebie	panie	pani	ônym/nim	ônym/nim	ônyj/nij	nŏs	wŏs	panach	państwie	paniach	ônych/nich	ônych/nich
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	mnōm	tobōm	panym	paniōm	ônym/nim	ônym/nim	niōm	nami	wami	panami/panōma	państwym	paniami/paniōma	ônymi nimi	ônymi nimi

^[7]

There may be a form beginning with n-, used after prepositions. Short clitic forms (i.e. mu) might be used in unstressed positions.

The reflexive pronoun for all persons and numbers is siebie, sie, siã.

Case
Case	reflexive siebie/sie/siã.
Nominative/vocative (mianownik/wołŏcz)	—
Genitive (dopołniŏcz)	siebie / sie / siã
Dative (cylownik)	sobie
Accusative (biernik)	siebie / sie / siã
Locative (miyjscownik)	sobie
Instrumental (nŏrzyndnik)	sobōm

The possessive adjectives (also used as possessive pronouns) derived from the personal pronouns are mōj, twōj, jego (m., n.)/[jij (f.); nasz, wasz, ich. There is also a reflexive possessive swōj. The polite second-person pronouns have possessives identical to the genitives of the corresponding nouns.

The demonstrative pronoun, also used as a demonstrative adjective, is tyn (feminine ta, neuter to, masculine personal plural ci, other plural te). The distal demonstrative pronoun is tamtyn.

Interrogative pronouns are fto ("who") and co ("what"); these also provide the pronouns ftoś/coś ("someone/something"), nikt/nic ("no one/nothing").

The usual relative pronouns are kery, chtory, and ftory (which, which one; that) (declined like an adjective).

The pronoun and adjective wszystek means "all". It is used most commonly in the plural wszyjscy ("everyone"), and in the neuter singular (wszyjsko) to mean "everything". The pronoun and adjective każdy means "each, every", while żŏdyn means "no, none".

Numbers and quantifiers

Silesian has a complex system of numerals and related quantifiers, with special rules for their inflection, for the case of the governed noun, and for verb agreement with the resulting noun phrase.

The base numbers are as follows:

Zero – zero or nul
One – jedyn
Two – dwa
Three – trzi
Four – sztyry
Five – piyńć
Six – szejś
Seven – siedym
Eight – ôziym
Nine – dziewiyńć
Ten – dziesiyńć
Eleven – jedynŏście
Twelve – dwanŏście
Thirteen – trzinŏście
Fourteen – sztyrnŏście
Fifteen – piytnŏście
Sixteen – szesnŏście
Seventeen – siedymnŏście
Eighteen – ôziymnŏście
Nineteen – dziewiytnŏście
Twenty – dwadzieścia
Thirty – trzidzieści
Forty – sztyrdzieści
Fifty – piyńćdziesiōnt
Sixty – szejśdziesiōnt
Seventy – siedymdziesiōnt
Eighty – ôziymdziesiōnt
Ninety – dziewiyńćdziesiōnt
One hundred – sto
Two hundred – dwieście
Three hundred – trzista
Four hundred – sztyrysta
Five hundred – piyńćset
Six hundred – szejśset
Seven hundred – siedymset
Eight hundred – ôziymset
Nine hundred – dziewiyńćset
One thousand – tysiōnc or tauzyn, which is treated as a noun (as thousand is dwa tysiōnce/tauzyny, literally "two thousands").
Million – milijōn, also a noun.
Billion (short scale), milliard (long scale) – milijard
Trillion (short scale), billion (long scale) – bilijōn
Quadrillion (short scale), billiard (long scale) – bilijard

Compound numbers are constructed similarly as in English (for example, 91,234 is dziewiyńćdziesiōnt jedyn tysiyncy/tauzynōw dwieście trzidzieści sztyry). The numeral jedyn (1) behaves as an ordinary adjective, and no special rules apply. It can even be used in the plural, for example to mean "some" (and not others), or to mean "one" with pluralia tantum, e.g. jedne dźwiyrze "one door" (dźwiyrze has no singular). After the numerals dwa, trzi, sztyry (2, 3, 4), and compound numbers ending with them (22, 23, 24, etc. but not 12, 13, or 14, which take -nŏście as a suffix and are thus not compound numbers in the first place), the noun is plural and takes the same case as the numeral, and the resulting noun phrase is plural (e.g. 4 koty stały, "4 cats stood"). With other numbers (5, 6, etc., 20, 21, 25, etc.), if the numeral is nominative or accusative, the noun takes the genitive plural form, and the resulting noun phrase is neuter singular (e.g. 5 kotōw stało, "5 cats stood"). With the masculine personal plural forms of numbers (as given in the morphology article section), the rule given above – that if the numeral is nominative or accusative, the noun is genitive plural and the resulting phrase is neuter singular – applies to all numbers other than 1 (as in trzech chopōw prziszło, "three men came"). If the numeral is in the genitive, dative, instrumental or locative, the noun takes the same case as the numeral (except sometimes in the case of numbers that end with the nouns for 1000 and higher quantities, which often take a genitive noun regardless since they are treated as normal nouns).

Certain quantifiers behave similarly to numerals. These include kilka ("several"), ("a few") and wiele ("much, many"), which behave like numbers above 5 in terms of the noun cases and verb forms taken.

Quantifiers that always take the genitive of nouns include dużo ("much, many"), mało ("few, little"), wiyncyj ("more"), mynij ("less") (also nojwiyncyj/nojmynij "most/least"), trochã ("a bit").

The words ôba and ôbydwa (meaning "both"), and their derived forms behave like dwa.

Verbs

Silesian verbs have the grammatical category of aspect. Each verb is either imperfective, meaning that it denotes continuous or habitual events, or perfective, meaning that it denotes single completed events (in particular, perfective verbs have no present tense). Verbs often occur in imperfective and perfective pairs – for example, czytać and przeczytać both mean "to read", but the first has imperfective aspect, the second perfective.

Ôn czytoł ksiōnżkã. → "He was reading a book."

Ôn przeczytoł ksiōnżkã. → "He read a book."

Imperfective verbs have three tenses: present, past and future, the last being a compound tense (except in the case of być "to be"). Perfective verbs have a past tense and a simple future tense, the latter formed on the same pattern as the present tense of imperfective verbs. Both types also have imperative and conditional forms. The dictionary form of a verb is the infinitive, which usually ends with -ć and occasionally with -c, -ś, or -ź.

The present tense of imperfective verbs (and future tense of perfective verbs) has six forms, for the three persons and two numbers. There are eight main conjugation patterns.

Conjugation I

Conjugation I
		Singular			Plural
	Person	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Virile	Nonvirile
infinitive		-ać
present tense	1st	-ōm			-ōmy
	2nd	-ŏsz			-ŏcie
	3rd	-ŏ			-ajōm

^[8]

Conjugation II

Conjugation II
		Singular			Plural
	Person	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Virile	Nonvirile
infinitive		-ać
present tense	1st	-ã			-ymy
	2nd	-esz			-ecie
	3rd	-e			-ōm

^[8]

Conjugation III

Conjugation III
		Singular			Plural
	Person	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Virile	Nonvirile
infinitive		-eć
present tense	1st	-ã			-ymy
	2nd	-isz/-ysz			-icie/-ycie
	3rd	-i/-y			-ōm

^[9]

Conjugation IV

Conjugation IV
		Singular			Plural
	Person	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Virile	Nonvirile
infinitive		-eć
present tense	1st	-ejã			-ejymy
	2nd	-ejesz			-ejecie
	3rd	-eje			-ejōm

^[10]

Conjugation V

Conjugation V
		Singular			Plural
	Person	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Virile	Nonvirile
infinitive		-eć
present tense	1st	-ã			-ymy
	2nd	-isz/-ysz			-icie/-ycie
	3rd	-i/-y			-ōm

^[10]

Conjugation VI

Conjugation VI
		Singular			Plural
	Person	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Virile	Nonvirile
infinitive		-ować
present tense	1st	-ujã			-ujymy
	2nd	-ujesz			-ujecie
	3rd	-uje			-ujōm

^[11]

Conjugation VII

Conjugation VII
		Singular			Plural
	Person	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Virile	Nonvirile
infinitive		-nōnć/-nyć
present tense	1st	-ã			-nymy
	2nd	-niesz			-niecie
	3rd	-nie			-nōm

^[11]

Conjugation VIII

Conjugation VIII
		Singular			Plural
	Person	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Virile	Nonvirile
infinitive		-ź/-ś/-c/-ć
present tense	1st	-ã			-ymy
	2nd	-esz			-ecie
	3rd	-e			-ōm

^[12]

Być (to be)

*być* conjugation (irregular imperfective)
		Singular			Plural
	Person	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Virile	Nonvirile
Infinitive		być
present tense	1st	je żech			my sōm/mychmy sōm
	2nd	je żeś			sōm żeście
	3rd	je			sōm
past tense	1st	bōł żech/żech bōł	była żech/byłach/żech była	było żech/żech było	byli my/my byli	były my/my były
	2nd	bōł żeś/żeś bōł	była żeś/byłaś/żeś była	było żeś/żeś było	byliście/żeście byli	byłyście/żeście były
	3rd	bōł	była	było	byli	były
future tense	1st	bydã			bydymy
	2nd	bydziesz			bydziecie
	3rd	bydzie			bydōm
conditional	1st	bych bōł	bych była	bych było	by my byli/bychmy byli	byście byli
	2nd	byś bōł	byś była	byś było	byście byli	byście były
	3rd	by bōł	by była	by było	by byli	by były
imperative	1st	niych bydã			bydźmy
	2nd	bydź			bydźcie
	3rd	niych bydzie			niych bydōm
active adjectival participle		bydōncy	bydōncŏ	bydōnce	bydōncy	bydōnce
contemporary adverbial participle		bydōnc
verbal noun		bycie

^[13]

Past tense

The past tense agrees with the subject in gender as well as person and number. The basic past stem is in -ł; to this are added endings for gender and number, and then personal endings are further added for the first and second person forms.

Simple past tense

Past tense
		Singular			Plural
	Person	Masculine	Feminine	Neuter	Virile	Nonvirile
Past tense	1st	-łch/-łech/-ł żech	-łach/-ła żech	-łoch/-ło żech	-limy/-lichmy	-łymy/-łychmy
	2nd	-łś/-łeś/-ł żeś	-łaś/-ła żeś	-łoś/-ło żeś	-liście/-li żeście	-łyście/-ły żeście
	3rd	-ł	-ła	-ło	-li	-ły

^[14]

Pluperfect

The largely archaic or stylized pluperfect tense is formed analytically:^[15]

In the first person masculine singular, with bōłch, bōłech, or bōł żech and the third person masculine past form.
In the first person feminine singular, with byłach or była żech and the third person feminine past form.
In the first person neuter singular, with byłoch or było żech and the third person feminine past form.
In the first person virile plural, with byli my orbylichmy and the third person virile plural past form.
In the first person non-virile plural, with były my or byłychmy and the third person virile plural past form.
In the second person masculine singular, with bōłś, bōłeś, or bōł żeś and the third person masculine past form.
In the second person feminine singular, with byłaś or była żeś and the third person feminine past form.
In the second person neuter singular, with byłoś or było żeś and the third person feminine past form.
In the second person virile plural, with byliście or byli żeście and the third person virile plural past form.
In the second person non-virile plural, with byłyście or były żeście and the third person virile plural past form.
In the third person masculine singular, with bōł and the third person masculine past form.
In the second person feminine singular, with była and the third person feminine past form.
In the second person neuter singular, with było and the third person feminine past form.
In the second person virile plural, with byliście and the third person virile plural past form.
In the second person non-virile plural, with byłyście and the third person virile plural past form.

Future tense

The imperfective future tense is formed analytically using a future form of być and either the infinite or the appropriate third person past form.

czytać → bydã czytać/bydã czytoł

The perfective future is formed using a personal non-past form of a perfective form.^[16]

przeczytać → przeczytōm

Conditional mood

The conditional is formed analytically or by attaching a declined form of the clitic by and the third person past tense.^[17]

In the first person singular, with bych and the appropriate third person past form.
In the first person virile plural, with by my or bychmy and the third person virile plural past form.
In the first person non-virile plural, with by my or bychmy and the third person virile plural past form.
In the first person singular, with byś and the appropriate third person past form.
In the second person virile plural, with byście and the third person virile plural past form.
In the second person non-virile plural, with byście and the third person virile plural past form.
In the third person, with by and the appropriate third person past form.

Imperative

The imperative is formed in various ways depending on the conjugation pattern. Sometimes only the stem is present with raising, as in robić → rōb, sometimes the suffixes -ej/-ij are added. Further suffixes -my and -cie are available for the first person plural and second person plural forms. To make third-person imperative sentences (including with the polite second-person pronouns pōn etc.) the particle niych is used at the start of the sentence (or at least before the verb), with the verb in the future tense (if być or perfective) or present tense (otherwise). There is a tendency to prefer imperfective verbs in imperative sentences for politeness; negative imperatives quite rarely use perfectives.^[17]

Participles

present adverbial participle (imperfective verbs only) are formed with -ōnc such as śpiywajōnc (meaning "(when) singing", "by singing", etc.)
present adjectival participle (imperfective verbs only), formed from the present adverbial participle by adding adjectival endings with -ōncy as śpiywajōncy etc., meaning "singing" (as an attributive adjective), although such participles can be used to form extended adjectival phrases, which (usually unlike in English) can precede the noun.
passive participle (all transitive verbs), in -ny or -ty (conjugated as an adjective). This often corresponds to the English past participle, both in fully adjectival use and in passive voice.^[18]

Verbal noun

The verbal noun is formed by adding either -ni(e) or -ci(e). It is a regular derivation of verbs.

Prepositions

Silesian uses prepositions, which form phrases by preceding a noun or noun phrase. Different prepositions take different cases (all cases are possible except nominative and vocative); some prepositions can take different cases depending on meaning.

The prepositions z and w are pronounced together with the following word, obeying the usual rules for consonant cluster voicing (so z tobōm "with you" is pronounced stobōm). Before some consonant clusters, particularly clusters beginning with a sibilant (in the case of z) or with f/w (in the case of w), the prepositions take the form zy and wy. These forms are also used before the first-person singular pronouns in mn-; several other prepositions also have longer forms before these pronouns, and these phrases are pronounced as single words, with the stress on the penultimate syllable (the -y). The prepositions po and do have the variations pō and dō when before nasal consonants.

Common prepositions include:

na, with the locative with basic meaning "on", and with the accusative with basic meaning "onto" (also metaphorical meanings)
w, with the locative with basic meaning "in"
z, with the instrumental comitative meaning "with" (in accompaniment of); with the genitive meaning "from, out of"
do/ôd, with genitive, meaning "to, into/from"
dlŏ, with genitive, meaning "for"
ô, with locative meaning "about", also with the accusative in some constructions
przed/za/nad/pod with instrumental meaning "before, in front of/behind/over/under", also with the accusative in some meanings (and genitive in the case of za); there are also compound prepositions sprzed/zza/znad/spod ("from in front of" etc.) taking the genitive
przez/bez with the accusative, meaning "through" etc.
przeciwko with dative, meaning "against"
po, with locative meaning "after", also with the accusative in some meanings
przi, with locative, meaning "near" etc.
bez, with genitive, meaning "without"

Conjunctions

Common Silesian conjunctions include:

i meaning "and"
lub and a(l)bo meaning "or"
ale meaning "but"
że meaning "that"
jeśli/eźli/ejźli/jeli/eli/jeźli/jesi meaning "if" (for real conditionals) or gdyby and keby (where by is the conditional particle)
czy meaning "whether" (also an interrogative particle)
kedy or gdy meaning "when"
wiync and beztōż/bezto meaning "so" and "therefore"
bo meaning "because"
choć/chociŏż meaning "although"
aby/żeby meaning "in order to/that" (can be followed by an infinitive phrase, or by a sentence in the past tense; in the latter case, the by of the conjunction is in fact the conditional particle and takes personal endings as appropriate)

References

^ Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 173–174.
^ Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 174.
^ ^a ^b ^c Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 175.
^ ^a ^b ^c Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 176.
^ ^a ^b Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 177.
^ Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 178.
^ ^a ^b Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 179.
^ ^a ^b Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 180.
^ Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 180–181.
^ ^a ^b Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 181.
^ ^a ^b Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 182.
^ Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 182–183.
^ Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 189–190.
^ Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 186.
^ Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 188.
^ Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 184.
^ ^a ^b Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 187.
^ Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 185.

Bibliography

Jaroszewicz, Henryk (2022). Zasady pisowni języka śląskiego (in Silesian). pp. 173–190.
Henryk Jaroszewicz (19 March 2021). "Formy czasownikowe języka śląskiego. Próba klasyfikacji". Wachtyrz.eu (in Silesian). Kotórz Mały, Poland: Silesia Progress.
Henryk Jaroszewicz (11 January 2021). "System koniugacji języka śląskiego. Próba klasyfikacji". Wachtyrz.eu (in Silesian). Kotórz Mały, Poland: Silesia Progress.
Henryk Jaroszewicz (27 February 2021). "System deklinacji rzeczowników języka śląskiego. Próba klasyfikacji". Wachtyrz.eu (in Silesian). Kotórz Mały, Poland: Silesia Progress.

External links

silling, an online Silesian-Polish dictionary
dykcjonorz, an online grammatical dictionary of Silesian

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022173–174-1] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 173–174.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022174-2] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 174.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022175-3] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 175.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022176-4] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 176.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022177-5] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 177.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022178-6] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 178.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022179-7] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 179.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022180-8] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 180.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022180–181-9] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 180–181.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022181-10] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 181.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022182-11] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 182.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022182–183-12] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 182–183.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022189–190-13] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 189–190.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022186-14] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 186.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022188-15] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 188.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022184-16] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 184.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022187-17] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 187.

[FOOTNOTEJaroszewicz2022185-18] Jaroszewicz 2022, pp. 185.

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