Wikipedia

To Zion

"To Zion" is a song recorded by American rapper and singer Lauryn Hill for her debut solo studio album The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill (1998). It was written and produced by Hill herself, while Che Pope received a co-production credit under his pseudonym Che Guevara. Featuring American guitarist Carlos Santana, "To Zion" is an acoustic Spanish guitar-driven hip hop and gospel track. Lyrically, it is a tribute to Hill's oldest son Zion David Marley, to whom she gave birth in 1997, during her relationship with Rohan Marley.

"To Zion"
Promotional single by Lauryn Hill featuring Carlos Santana
from the album The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill
ReleasedNovember 18, 1998 (1998-11-18)
Recorded1997
Studio
Genre
Length6:09[a]
Label
Songwriter(s)Lauryn Hill
Producer(s)
Audio
"To Zion" on YouTube

"To Zion" discusses Hill's decision not to terminate her pregnancy in favor of her burgeoning career, while further lyrical themes derive from spirituality, rebirth and Hill's relationship with God. The lyricism elicited unanimous acclaim from music critics upon the release of The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, with numerous journalists accentuating the track as a focal point on the album. The song was subsequently released as a promotional single on November 18, 1998, by Ruffhouse Records and Columbia Records, peaking at number 77 on the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs.

Hill performed "To Zion" live with Santana at the 41st Annual Grammy Awards (1999), and has included it on set lists for all of her concert tours. In retrospective commentaries, the critics have acknowledged the influence "To Zion" has had on artistry of numerous rappers who achieved mainstream prominence decades after the song's release, as well as the impact its lyrical message of encouragement to pursue motherhood simultaneously with a career has had on various female celebrities. Furthermore, a multitude of recording artists have sampled or referenced the song in their respective works.

Background and development

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In 1996, while touring as a member of the Fugees, Lauryn Hill met Rohan Marley, son of Bob Marley. The pair gradually formed a close relationship, and Hill soon became pregnant with his child.[3] After contributing to fellow Fugees member Wyclef Jean's solo debut Wyclef Jean Presents The Carnival (1997), Hill refrained from touring and recording due to her pregnancy and cases of writer's block.[4][5] The pregnancy, however, eventually reinvigorated Hill's creativity, as she developed a desire to write in a larger capacity than before. Of the early writing process, she said: "Every time I got hurt, every time I was disappointed, every time I learned, I just wrote a song."[6] Hill gave birth to Zion David Marley on August 3, 1997.[7] She chose the name Zion as she considered it substantial and powerful, elucidating: "[Zion] personally delivered me from my emotional and spiritual drought. He just replenished my newness. When he was born, I felt like I was born again."[8]

Hill revealed that her affinity with Latin music came from a young age, crediting her parents' record collection for introducing her to the Latin rock band Santana. She frequently listened to their second studio album Abraxas (1970), accentuating its instrumental track "Samba Pa Ti" and further elaborating: "I used to write my first songs to other people's music, and this particular album had this beautiful, soulful guitar, and it was instrumental, so I was in heaven. From that time – Oye Como Va, Black Magic Woman – all those songs just really touched me, and gave me an appreciation for guitar and for the Latin African rhythms."[9] Hill's admiration for Santana stimulated her to seek their frontman Carlos Santana out to collaborate with her.[10] Their collaborative effort would become "To Zion", and Hill consequently wrote, produced and recorded "Do You Like the Way" for Santana's subsequent album Supernatural (1999).[11][b]

Writing and production

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"To Zion" was written solely by Hill.[13] According to her then-manager Jayson Jackson, the songwriting was prompted by Wendy Williams revealing Hill's pregnancy on her radio show and the intense media scrutiny over the identity of the child's father, as Hill had never publicized her relationship with Marley prior to the pregnancy.[14] Che Pope, who was credited as the song's co-producer under his pseudonym Che Guevara, produced the track within 20 minutes inside a small studio apartment in Brooklyn. After he presented Hill with the instrumental, she responded: "I have this idea to do a song about my baby and I didn't know what the music should sound like until I heard that track."[14] Hill subsequently recorded the song at the Chung King Studios in New York City and the Perfect Pair Studios in East Orange, New Jersey.[13] Carlos Santana recorded his guitar instrumental at the Circle House Studios in Miami.[14]

The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill became the subject of a lawsuit soon after its release, as the songwriting and production collective New Ark (Vada Nobles, Rasheem Pugh, Tejumold Newton, and Johari Newton) sued Hill for having "used their songs and production skills, but failed to properly credit them for the work."[15] In addition to reimbursement, New Ark demanded co-writing credits for 13 out of the album's 14 tracks. "To Zion" was the sole track excluded from the stipulation, with Nobles remarking the song "was her baby because it was about her child. Can't nobody interfere with that right there."[16] The lawsuit was eventually settled out of court in February 2001, for a reported $5 million.[14][17] While Pope was not involved in the lawsuit, he claimed he solely produced "To Zion", despite being merely credited as a co-producer, and contemplated filing a lawsuit of his own but ultimately abandoned the idea.[14]

Music and lyrics

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American guitarist Carlos Santana (pictured) is featured on "To Zion".

"To Zion" is composed in the key of E major, according to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony/ATV Music Publishing.[18] Eric Weisbard from Spin described the song's sound as "Revolutionary War fife roll convert[ing] into hip-hop".[19] The instrumental track is driven by acoustic Spanish guitar licks, as laid by Carlos Santana, which are interspersed with a military march.[20][21][22] The song's tempo is a moderate 86 beats per minute, in common time, while Hill's vocal range spans around one and a half octave from the low note of C♯4 to the high note of G5.[18] Weisbard compared the song's structure to the works of John Lennon and Hill's vocal performance to Dionne Warwick at the end of her 1962 song "Don't Make Me Over".[19]

One of the more introspective tracks on The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, "To Zion" is an emotional tribute to Hill's son Zion David Marley.[20] As Hill serenades her son, she discusses her unplanned pregnancy and the decision not to terminate it, despite the profuse pressure to do so in favor of her burgeoning career.[23][24] A spiritual lyrical theme becomes distinguished through Hill's conversations with God regarding the outcome of her pregnancy,[25] prayers for her son's safety and welfare,[13] and learning "love of God through love of her child".[c] While she initially conveys insecurity and vulnerability over the contemplation,[24] she ultimately declares "now the joy of my world is in Zion",[19] and thanks God for "a gift so great".[13] Regarding the lyricism, Hill clarified: "I wanted it to be a revolutionary song about a spiritual movement, and also about my spiritual change, going from one place to another because of my son."[27] Due to religious connotations within the theme, biographer Chris Nickson classified "To Zion" as a gospel track.[28]

Critical reception

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"To Zion" received unanimous acclaim from music critics, both upon the release of The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill and in retrospective commentaries. Dom Phillips from Q complimented the song's instrumentation by saying it "neatly flutters Spanish guitar over a military march".[22] John Mulvey from NME listed the track among the highlights of The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, remarking that "emotional heroism prevails over poor-superstar whingeing" in its lyrics.[23] Writing for Rolling Stone, American writer and journalist Touré also labeled it one of the album's standout tracks, describing it as an "epic, adoring tribute to her young son" and commending Santana's guitar performance.[20] Nick Butler from Sputnikmusic stated the track could "easily descend into cheesy power-ballad territory" but nonetheless has "grit, imagination, and power".[29] While retrospectively discussing its parent album, Kyle Anderson from MTV highlighted the song by calling it "sweet".[30]

David Opie from Highsnobiety praised "To Zion", writing: "It's the way that Lauryn effortlessly combines the confessional with the celebratory here which truly speaks to her strength, teaching others to live their truth without letting subsequent struggles consume them."[31] Justin Tinsley of Andscape shared Opie's sentiments, describing the song as "beautifully strong and transparent".[16] Brandon Tensley wrote for Time that the thesis of The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill manifested itself on "To Zion", as Hill "creates an emotive space in which she can be vulnerable, sometimes uncomfortably so".[24] Okla Jones of Essence declared the song as Hill's best, calling it "[p]erhaps the most beautiful song in Hill's entire body of work",[32] while Victoria L. Johnson included it on a list of Hill's best songs published via Complex and stated: "The choir's chant of 'marching' propels the song to another level of intense devotion. Carlos Santana's incredible guitar playing only deepens the sonic connection."[33]

Live performances

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Hill included "To Zion" on the set list for her first solo concert tour, The Miseducation Tour (1999), with Carlos Santana joining her on stage at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium in San Francisco on March 3.[34] Furthermore, the two had performed the song together at the 41st Annual Grammy Awards on February 24,[35] where Hill won a record-breaking five Grammy Awards in a single night.[36][d] Dean Van Nguyen from The Irish Times retrospectively hailed Hill's song choice for the ceremony as "brave", adding: "With legendary axe-man Carlos Santana caressing his acoustic guitar by her side, Hill delivered a cutting four-minute sermon on the pressures facing young women at pop music's top end."[35] Additionally, the song appeared on Hill's live album Live in Tokyo, Japan '99 (2020), recorded during The Miseducation Tour in Tokyo on September 7, 1999.[38]

Hill also included "To Zion" on the set list for the tour commemorating the 20th anniversary of The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill in 2018.[39] In a review of the tour's Arena Birmingham stop for The Guardian, Kitty Empire criticized the tour guitarist for "destroy[ing] Carlos Santana's formerly lovely Spanish guitar intro" but praised Hill's vocal performance.[40] During Hill's rendition of the song at ONE MusicFest in Atlanta on October 8, 2022, Zion David Marley—Hill's oldest son and the subject of "To Zion"—surprised Hill on stage along with his two children.[41] In 2023, Hill added the song to the set list for her tour commemorating the 25th anniversary of The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill,[42] which was partly co-headlined with the Fugees as their reunion tour.[43]

Impact and legacy

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"That song is about the revelation that my son was to me. I had always made decisions for other people, making everybody else happy, and once I had him that was really the first decision that was unpopular for me. It was one that was based on my happiness and not what other people wanted for me or for themselves. And it was the best decision that I could have ever made, because I'm the happiest and healthiest that I have ever been. It also revealed to me which relationships were right, which ones were sincere, and which ones were based on exploiting and hurting me. It was a godsend all the way round – 360 degrees of that whole situation were nothing but a blessing. And I'm so happy that I made the choice that I did."

—Hill reflecting on "To Zion" and her pregnancy.[9]

In an analysis of Hill's impact on contemporary culture for Time, Brandon Tensley credited "To Zion" with encouraging African-American female artists to express themselves more honestly through their works, stating: "This working through of raw emotions — this centering of the heart — has long been denied black women in the mainstream, including during the hostility-filled '90s, but it's treated seriously in Hill's work, and in part, it's what makes her extraordinarily transgressive as a lyricist."[24] In her essay for The Westside Gazette, Carma Henry stated the song "beautifully paint[ed] the portrait of the authentic experience of Black girlhood and the transition into womanhood".[44] The song's lyrical content has also been attributed with influencing female celebrities to pursue motherhood simultaneously with their prosperous careers, with Justin Tinsley of Andscape enlisting tennis player Serena Williams and rapper Cardi B as prime examples.[16] Similarly, David Opie from Highsnobiety described the song as "a call to arms for other expectant mothers who have faced similar pressures in the workplace", in reference to professional pressure placed on Hill to have an abortion, which is discussed in the lyrics.[31] Actress Alexa Demie mentioned that she drew inspiration from "To Zion" for her role in the HBO drama series Euphoria.[45]

Several critics have also acknowledged the influence "To Zion" has had on artistry of numerous rappers who achieved mainstream prominence throughout the decades after the song's release. Along with some other tracks from The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill, it has been credited with popularizing previously dismissed theological themes in mainstream hip hop, with Opie noting: "Six years before Kanye would go on to walk with Jesus, Lauryn openly conversed with him on multiple tracks here, weaving various references to the Bible throughout."[31] Kathy Iandoli shared those sentiments, writing: "Before Miseducation, the only way you could reference God was through identifying as one under the Nation of Gods and Earths. Anything else was taboo or theoretically corny."[25] She further elaborated by indicating the impact Hill's religiously themed lyricism has had on rappers such as Lecrae and Chance the Rapper.[25] Vada Nobles stated in 2008 that he believed the drum roll on "To Zion" had inspired the aforementioned "Jesus Walks" (2004) by Kanye West.[14] West even referenced "To Zion" on his 2007 song "Champion", as evident in the lines: "Lauryn Hill say her heart was in Zion / I wish her heart still was in rhymin' / 'Cause who the kids gon' listen to, huh?".[25] Furthermore, American rapper J. Cole sampled "To Zion" on his 2013 song "Can I Holla at Ya".[46] In 2018, English singer Jessie Ware exalted "To Zion" and credited it for artistic guidance, explaining: "The song grows and grows and grows and becomes huge; it's almost overpowering. It's about a mother's love, but weirdly I felt like I could relate to it when I was 13 years old. It definitely made me think about how you put together a record".[47]

Track listings and formats

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US promotional CD single[2]

  1. "To Zion" (radio edit) (featuring Carlos Santana) – 3:40
  2. "To Zion" (album version) (featuring Carlos Santana) – 4:33
  3. "To Zion" (instrumental) (featuring Carlos Santana) – 4:31
  4. "To Zion" (callout hook #1) – 0:10
  5. "To Zion" (callout hook #2) – 0:05

Japanese mini CD single[48]

  1. "To Zion" (album version) (featuring Carlos Santana) – 4:33
  2. "To Zion" (instrumental) (featuring Carlos Santana) – 4:31

Credits and personnel

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Credits are adapted from the liner notes of The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill.[13]

  • Kenny Bobien – backing vocals
  • Commissioner Gordon – engineering, mixing, mixing engineering
  • Jared "Chocolate" Crawford – live drums
  • Che Guevara – production
  • Lauryn Hill – arrangement, lead vocals, production, songwriting
  • Ken Johnston – engineering assistance
  • Sabrina Johnston – backing vocals
  • Grace Paradise – harp
  • James Poyser – synth bass
  • Lenesha Randolph – backing vocals
  • Warren Riker – engineering
  • Earl Robinson – backing vocals
  • Carlos Santana – lead guitar
  • Jamie Seigel – mixing engineering assistance
  • Andrea Simmons – backing vocals
  • Eddie Stockley – backing vocals
  • Johnny Wyndrx – engineering

Charts

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Weekly chart performance for "To Zion"
Chart (1999) Peak
position
US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs (Billboard)[49] 77

Release history

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Release dates and formats for "To Zion"
Region Date Format(s) Label(s) Ref.
Japan November 18, 1998 (1998-11-18) Mini CD Sony Music Japan
[50]
United States March 9, 1999 (1999-03-09)
[51]

References

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Notes

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  1. ^ The actual length of "To Zion" is four minutes and 33 seconds. However, its album version contains an interlude following the end of the song, which pushes its total length to six minutes and nine seconds.[1] The interlude is excluded from the single pressings for "To Zion".[2]
  2. ^ Hill's contributions on "Do You Like the Way" would win her her second consecutive Grammy Award for Album of the Year, for Supernatural, at the 42nd Annual Grammy Awards (2000).[12]
  3. ^ One of the more predominant lyrical themes on The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill is learning to love, which is made apparent by classroom interludes spread throughout the record.[26] On the interludes, American poet and politician Ras Baraka portrays a teacher speaking with children about the concept of love.[14] In a retrospective analysis, Carvel Wallace from Pitchfork acknowledged the love learnt on "To Zion" represents the love of God Hill learned through the love of her child.[26]
  4. ^ Hill's record for most Grammy Awards won by a woman in a single night would be broken at the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards (2010), when Beyoncé won six.[37]

Citations

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  1. ^ Hill, Lauryn (1998). "To Zion". The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill (CD). Ruffhouse Records, Columbia Records. CK 69035.
  2. ^ a b Hill, Lauryn (1998). To Zion (promotional CD single). Ruffhouse Records, Columbia Records. CSK 41656.
  3. ^ Furman & Furman 1999, p. 112
  4. ^ Furman & Furman 1999, p. 102
  5. ^ Nickson 1999, p. 132
  6. ^ Furman & Furman 1999, pp. 128–129
  7. ^ Hill, Lauryn [@mslaurynhill] (August 3, 2020). "Happy 23rd Birthday Zion!! I wish you healing, strength, compassion and most of all love, for yourself, and for others. May God set a clear path before you, guide and protect you, and transform any adversity or hardship you've experienced into an absolute blessing—so that you may be a blessing to others! I LOVE you!!! Mommy ♥️😘😘🥳🎊🎂🍰🍰🧁🦋✨🎁🎈🎈🚀🌠🎉🛍🎈". Retrieved September 9, 2023 – via Instagram.
  8. ^ Furman & Furman 1999, p. 133
  9. ^ a b Witter, Simon (August 21, 2013). "Lauryn Hill: 'I'm not afraid to be the person I am'". The Guardian. Retrieved September 9, 2023.
  10. ^ Palmer, Tamara (August 25, 2023). "'The Miseducation Of Lauryn Hill': 25 Facts About The Iconic Album, From Its Cover To Its Controversy". The Recording Academy. Retrieved February 9, 2024.
  11. ^ Santana (1999). "Do You Like the Way". Supernatural (CD liner notes). Arista Records. 07822-19080-2.
  12. ^ "Lauryn Hill". Grammy Awards. The Recording Academy. Retrieved September 9, 2023.
  13. ^ a b c d e Hill, Lauryn (1998). "To Zion". The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill (CD liner notes). Ruffhouse Records, Columbia Records. CK 69035.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g Checkoway, Laura (August 26, 2008). "Inside 'The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill'". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on August 9, 2018. Retrieved September 9, 2023.
  15. ^ McLeod, Rodd (May 10, 2000). "The reeducation of Lauryn Hill". Salon. Archived from the original on November 30, 2005. Retrieved September 10, 2023.
  16. ^ a b c Tinsley, Justin (August 23, 2018). "On its 20th anniversary: Lauryn Hill's 'To Zion' and the new motherhood of Serena Williams and Cardi B". Andscape. Retrieved September 10, 2023.
  17. ^ Perry, Claudia (February 11, 2001). "Lauryn Hill Settles Lawsuit". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on April 7, 2019. Retrieved September 10, 2023.
  18. ^ a b "Lauryn Hill "To Zion" Sheet Music in E Major". Sony/ATV Music Publishing. July 21, 2008. Retrieved September 10, 2023 – via Musicnotes.com.
  19. ^ a b c Weisbard, Eric (September 1998). "Triumph of the Hill". Spin. Vol. 14, no. 9. pp. 179–180. ISSN 0886-3032. Retrieved February 9, 2024 – via Google Books.
  20. ^ a b c Touré (August 12, 1998). "Lauryn Hill: The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill". Rolling Stone. Archived from the original on June 18, 2008. Retrieved September 10, 2023.
  21. ^ Lieberman, Neil. "Lauryn Hill: The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill". Pitchfork. Archived from the original on February 19, 2003. Retrieved September 10, 2023.
  22. ^ a b Phillips, Tom. "The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill". Q. Archived from the original on September 30, 1999. Retrieved September 10, 2023.
  23. ^ a b Mulvey, John (September 23, 1998). "Lauryn Hill – The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill". NME. Archived from the original on August 17, 2000. Retrieved September 10, 2023.
  24. ^ a b c d Tensley, Brandon (August 25, 2018). "How Lauryn Hill Educated the Music Industry 20 Years Ago". Time. Retrieved September 11, 2023.
  25. ^ a b c d Iandoli, Kathy (August 25, 2018). "10 Ways 'The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill' Changed Everything". Tidal. Retrieved September 11, 2023.
  26. ^ a b Wallace, Carvell (July 10, 2016). "Lauryn Hill: The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill Album Review". Pitchfork. Retrieved September 11, 2023.
  27. ^ Furman & Furman 1999, p. 149
  28. ^ Nickson 1999, p. 163
  29. ^ Butler, Nick (January 16, 2005). "Lauryn Hill – The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill (album review)". Sputnikmusic. Retrieved September 11, 2023.
  30. ^ Anderson, Kyle (August 25, 2010). "Lauryn Hill Teaches Everybody With 'Miseducation': Wake-Up Video". MTV News. Archived from the original on July 27, 2022. Retrieved September 11, 2023.
  31. ^ a b c Opie, David (May 27, 2019). "'The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill': What It Taught Us About Life & Music". Highsnobiety. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  32. ^ Jones, Okla (May 31, 2022). "The Best Of Lauryn Hill: 12 Songs From An Iconic Artist". Essence. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  33. ^ Johnson, Victoria L. (August 25, 2018). "The Best Lauryn Hill Songs". Complex. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  34. ^ Kaufman, Gil (March 4, 1999). "Best Of '99: Lauryn Hill Bares Her Soul To Lift Spirits". MTV News. Archived from the original on September 14, 2023. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  35. ^ a b Van Nguyen, Dean (August 22, 2018). "The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill: 20 years on". The Irish Times. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  36. ^ Coleman II, C. Vernon (February 10, 2022). "Lauryn Hill Wins Five of 10 Nominations at 1999 Grammy Awards – Hip-Hop's Biggest Milestones in Music History". XXL. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  37. ^ Jones, Sam; Whey, Simone (February 1, 2010). "Beyoncé hits Grammys for six". The Guardian. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  38. ^ "Live in Tokyo, Japan '99". Active Driveway. November 20, 2020. Retrieved September 12, 2023 – via Spotify.
  39. ^ Diep, Eric (September 13, 2018). "Lauryn Hill Delivers Flawless Classics at 'Miseducation' 20th-Anniversary Stop in Portland". Billboard. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  40. ^ Empire, Kitty (December 1, 2018). "Lauryn Hill review – a difficult re-education". The Guardian. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  41. ^ Corrine, Amber (October 10, 2022). "Lauryn Hill's Son, Zion, Surprises Her On Stage At ONE Musicfest". Vibe. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  42. ^ Bream, Jon (September 9, 2023). "Review: Always tardy Lauryn Hill was everything fans wanted at Mystic Lake". Star Tribune. Archived from the original on September 9, 2023. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  43. ^ Aswad, Jem (August 22, 2023). "Lauryn Hill Unveils 'Miseducation of Lauryn Hill' 25th Anniversary Tour Dates — Fugees to Open U.S. Shows". Variety. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  44. ^ Henry, Carma (September 6, 2023). ""The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill" Turns 25: A Tribute to the Album that Refined Hip-Hop and Feminism". The Westside Gazette. Retrieved September 14, 2023.
  45. ^ Gooding, Sarah (November 15, 2019). "Alexa Demie and Taylor Russell on 'Waves' and the complex power of women". i-D. Archived from the original on January 1, 2023. Retrieved July 16, 2024.
  46. ^ Pearce, Sheldon (April 19, 2018). "6 Rap Songs That Sample Lauryn Hill Masterfully". Pitchfork. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  47. ^ Feeney, Nolan (June 1, 2018). "The Next Generation of Lauryn Hill: 16 Artists on Their Favorite 'Miseducation' Songs". Billboard. Retrieved September 14, 2023.
  48. ^ Hill, Lauryn (1998). To Zion (mini CD single). Sony Music Entertainment Japan. SRDS 8341.
  49. ^ "Lauryn Hill Chart History (Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs)". Billboard. Retrieved September 12, 2023.
  50. ^ "トゥ・ザイオン" [To Zion] (in Japanese). Japan: Sony Music Records. November 18, 1998. Retrieved September 11, 2023 – via Oricon.
  51. ^ "New Releases" (PDF). Radio & Records. March 5, 1999. pp. 42, 48. Retrieved September 11, 2023 – via World Radio History.

Bibliography

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