The Syrian Hajj caravan (Arabic transliteration: Darb al-Hajj ash-Shami) was the annual pilgrim caravan that departed from Damascus to perform the Hajj pilgrimage in the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina.
The route was based on the ancient King's Highway, though its course was altered during Mamluk rule (1260–1517) to avoid urban centers. During Ottoman rule (1517–1917), the route was slightly altered again and its numerous rest stops and watering places were fortified to deter Bedouin raids against the pilgrims and demonstrate Ottoman authority. Damascus was the primary assembly point for Hajj pilgrims from places east of Egypt and north of the Arabian Peninsula. The Hajj pilgrims traveled together in a caravan commanded by the an amir al-hajj, who was responsible for the pilgrims' safety, transportation and provisioning. Most pilgrims and security forces traveled on camels, while particularly pious pilgrims traveled by foot. Under the Ottomans, the trek to the holy cities and the return to Damascus altogether took about three months. The main threat to the caravan came from Bedouin tribes seeking plunder; the tribes were typically paid off to desist from attacking.
History
editThe Syrian Hajj caravan traveled on a route that that partially followed a preexisting road, called the King's Highway, which was improved by the Umayyads (632-750). During their rule, the route also served as one of the main arteries of the Islamic world, connecting the Umayyad capital of Damascus with the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina in the Hejaz.[1] Following the Abbasid Revolution in 750 and the corresponding shift of the Islamic center of power from Damascus to Baghdad, the Hajj route from Damascus waned in importance.[1] Nonetheless, the Damascene route continued to be used through the 11th century and the number of pilgrims traveling it may have increased as well.[1] However, during Crusader rule in Palestine and Transjordan during the 12th and 13th centuries, the Syrian Hajj was significantly disrupted.[1] This was partly due to the establishment of Crusader fortresses at al-Karak, Shawbak and Ayla, which were located in Transjordan and thus blocked the traditional caravan route to the Hejaz.[1] At times, the Hajj was suspended for years and pilgrims sought alternative routes.[1] This state of affairs continued until the Ayyubid expulsion of the Crusaders from Transjordan in the late 1180s and the Crusaders' complete expulsion from Palestine by the Mamluks in the late 13th century.[1]
The onset of Mamluk rule was a major stabilizing factor for the Syrian Hajj because Syria, Egypt and the Hejaz became unified under a a centralized authority.[1] The Mongol destruction of the Abbasid capital of Baghdad also contributed to the resurgence of Damascus's importance as an assembly point for pilgrims; Iraqi, Persian and Khurasani pilgrims who had previously used Baghdad and Kufa as marshaling points now used Damascus.[2] The other principal marshaling point after 1258 was the Mamluk capital of Cairo.[2] While Damascus was the official marshaling point of Syria, Aleppo in the north and al-Karak in the south, sometimes served as semi-official marshaling points.[2] The pilgrim caravan leaving Damascus was under the official leadership of the amir al-hajj (Hajj caravan commander), who was mostly appointed by the Mamluk viceroy of Damascus, but sometimes directly appointed by the sultan in Cairo.[2] With the exception of Birket Ziza (modern-day al-Jiza), the Mamluks did not fortify the stops along the Syrian Hajj route nor build facilities, unlike the Egyptian caravan route, whose way-stations were well-fortified.[3]
Ottoman era
editBy 1517, the Ottoman Empire conquered the Mamluk realm, and adopted the religious authority of the caliphate and the guardianship of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina.[3] With this came the responsibility of protecting and supplying the annual Hajj caravan.[3] The Ottomans adopted a two-pronged approach to ensuring the caravan's safe passage: bribing the Bedouin tribes to desist from raiding the pilgrims and building a network of desert fortifications at the water sources and rest stops along the route to Medina.[4] The forts served to both demonstrate Ottoman religious authority and deter marauders.[5][6] Sultan Selim I (r. 1517–1520) had forts built at the caravan way-stations of as-Sanamayn, Muzayrib and Tell Far'un, all located in the Hawran hinterland of Damascus.[3] By 1563, the Ottomans built forts in the southern expanses of Transjordan and the northern Hejaz, including al-Qatranah, Ma'an, Dhat al-Hajj, Tabuk, al-Ukhaydir and al-Ula.[4] Then, in 1576, a fort was built at Hadiyya north of Medina.[4] The forts were mostly commissioned by the governors of Damascus Eyalet with the sanction of the sultan in Constantinople.[5] In general, the 16th-century Hajj forts were built around a square courtyard and consisted of three stories.[5] Their ground floors were typically composed of small vaulted rooms, and open staircases led to the second and third floors, the latter of which had a parapet.[5]
After the 1570s, Ottoman building activity along the Hajj route ceased until the 18th-century military construction boom in Palestine, Transjordan and the Hejaz.[7] Hajj forts built during this period included Dab'a and Hasa in Transjordan, and Fassu'a, al-Mudawwara, Mada'in Saleh and al-Nakhlayn in the Hejaz. The major innovation to the 18th-century forts was the increase in gunner slits and the increase in the number and size of gateways.[7] The Hajj forts lacked decoration and were mostly simple structures.[7] The 18th-century construction wave coincided with an uptick of Bedouin raids against the Hajj caravans, with the most serious being the 1757 raid by the Bani Sakhr, in which 20,000 pilgrims died.[8] The increased attacks were due to the successive Shammar and Annazah invasions of Bani Sakhr's territory and sources of income, and the Ottomans' failure to make their traditional payments to the Bedouin tribes in return for peace on the desert route.[8]
Course
editThe exact course of the medieval Syrian route is unclear, though it is known that the route changed depending on the time of year when the Hajj started (the lunar calendar is used in Islam), security conditions and availability of water.[2] The route followed the King's Highway until al-Karak where it veered to the southeast of the route, bypassing the fortified urban centers of Shawbak and Ayla on its way to Tabuk.[9] From there, the caravan proceeded to Medina, the first pilgrimage site of the Hajj. The Ottomans continued to use this route, but built a network of forts at the numerous rest stops and watering places along the route.
Administration
editThe Ottoman government financed and organized the Hajj caravans from Syria and Egypt.[10] Although the Sublime Porte (imperial government) was responsible for some formalities, the Syrian caravan was largely the prerogative of the wali (governor) of Damascus.[10] The chief government official of the caravan was the amir al-hajj (Hajj caravan commander).[10] The Ottomans' first Damascus governor, Janbirdi al-Ghazali cleared the route between Damascus and Aqaba (Ayla) of nomadic Turkmen raiders and ensured the caravan's safe passage by 1520. However, he revolted against the Sublime Porte and was killed and replaced by Ayas Mehmed Pasha, who established what historian F. E. Peters called a "dangerous and expensive precedent" by bribing the Bedouin tribes not to attack the caravan.[10] The post of amir al-hajj of the Syrian Hajj was initially filled by senior Mamluk leftovers in Damascus, then after 1571, by an array of local leaders who often held the governorships of Gaza, Nablus, Ajlun and al-Karak.[11] Beginning in 1708, the Sublime Porte established a policy whereby the governor of Damascus was required to serve as amir al-hajj.[11]
Budget
editThe Sublime Porte calculated the projected expenses and income of the Hajj, which were assessed by the bashdefterdar (treasury minister).[12] Based on the devised budget, the grand vizier instructed the governor of Damascus to collect the necessary taxes; the governor was the chief collection and disbursement officer of the caravan.[12] A major part of the tax revenues of the province of Damascus, namely from land and poll taxes, were earmarked for the Hajj.[12] The Hajj budget was deducted from the total annual revenues Damascus owed the Sublime Porte.[12]
According to Peters, the expenses of the caravan virtually amounted to the cost of an annual military campaign.[12] Among the typical expenses of the caravan were the wages and gifts of government and mercenary troops, transport camels, provisions and protection payments to Bedouin tribes.[12] The expenses consistently rose over time, making up an increasingly larger part of the provincial expenditures.[10] To acquire the necessary funds, the governor of Damascus began an expedition called the dawrah (collection tour) to areas under his jurisdiction to collect or extort dues from the inhabitants.[10] Eventually, the government could not meet the required expenses and relied on wealthy individuals to contribute, often in return for appointment as amir al-hajj.[10]
The payoff to Bedouin tribes was not clearly listed in the expenditure records, often being characterized as "general expenses".[12] While some particularly pious pilgrims made the trek to the Muslim holy cities on foot, most pilgrims, along with merchants, troops and government officials and their servants traveled on camels.[13] Thus, thousands of camels had to be purchased or leased annually for the Hajj.[14] The camels of the Syrian caravan were supplied by peasants from the Hawran or the Bedouin tribesmen of the Syrian steppe around Palmyra.[13] The camels were typically transacted between the amir al-hajj and brokerage corporations called muqawwimat, though a few individuals made direct transactions with suppliers. Muzayrib in Hawran, rather than Damascus, served as the main delivery point for the camels.[13] The government attempted to breed their own camels on occasion, but these initiatives were often short-lived projects.[14]
Funds also had to be provided for the troops manning the forts along the route, who all came from the garrisons in Damascus, which were divided into main categories: imperial Janissaries sent from Constantinople and locally recruited Janisarries.[4] Imperial Janissarries served at Muzayrib, Unayzah, Mu'azzam and Ma'an, while local Janissaries served as-Sanamayn, al-Qatranah, al-Karak, Mada'in Salih and al-Ukhaydir.[4] In the 16th through 18th centuries, an individual soldier's pay remained steady at five akçe a day.[4] However, the troops derived additional funds by engaging in their own commerce whereby they would buy cheap goods from the local inhabitants and sell them at high prices to the Hajj pilgrims.[15] At times, they would also illegally sell supplies and foodstuffs reserved for the pilgrims to Bedouin tribesmen.[15]
Economic benefits
editHistorically, the economy of Damascus benefited significantly during the Hajj.[16] During the Hajj season, the city was restructured around the incoming caravans and markets opened up that specifically catered to the pilgrims.[16] The inhabitants of Mecca and Medina also derived great financial reward during the Hajj as they provided the pilgrims food, local guides and translators, and lodging.[17] Most of Mecca's townsmen leased rooms in their homes to pilgrims during the Hajj.[17]
Schedule
editThe Hajj was an "annual budgeted enterprise",[12] which "took the better part of a year" to complete, according to Peters.[14] In the third month of the year, the Sublime Porte began devising the budget of the caravan.[14] In the seventh month, the Sublime Porte sent Damascus funds to be distributed to the inhabitants of Mecca and Medina and the upkeep of the cities' holy sites.[14] The dawrah took place during the eighth and ninth months.[14]
The Hajj caravan departed from Damascus around the 10th of Shawwal (tenth month of the Islamic calendar), with most pilgrims having arrived in Damascus from other parts of Syria, Anatolia, Iraq, Iran and far eastern regions by the previous week.[2] An armed relief caravan called the jurdah departed Damascus in the eleventh or twelfth month to meet the returning caravan and assist in its protection. Both the main and jurdah caravans would make it back to Damascus in the second month of the new year.[14]
References
edit- ^ a b c d e f g h Petersen, p. 9.
- ^ a b c d e f Cite error: The named reference
Petersen10was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ a b c d Petersen, p. 20.
- ^ a b c d e f Peters, p. 154.
- ^ a b c d Petersen, pp. 21–24.
- ^ Petersen, p. 25.
- ^ a b c Petersen, p. 24.
- ^ a b Petersen, p. 27.
- ^ Petersen, p. 16.
- ^ a b c d e f g Peters, p. 147.
- ^ a b Peters, p. 148.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Peters, p. 146.
- ^ a b c Peters, p. 149.
- ^ a b c d e f g Peters, p. 152.
- ^ a b Peters, pp. 154–155.
- ^ a b Ozyuksel, p. 206.
- ^ a b Ozyuksel, p. 205.
Bibliography
edit- Özyüksel, Murat (2014). The Hejaz Railway and the Ottoman Empire: Modernity, Industrialisation and Ottoman Decline. New York: I. B. Tauris.
- Peters, F. E. (1994). The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places. Princeton University Press.
- Petersen, Andrew (2012). The Medieval and Ottoman Hajj Route in Jordan: An Archaeological and Historical Study. Council for British Research in the Levant. ISBN 1842175025.