Historians major in East Asiatic History estimated the late-Ming's population was around 200 millions at AD.1600(the 28th year of Ming emperor Wanli). By AD.1650(the sixth year of Shunzhi), the estimated population was between 40-100 millions. Historians have concluded that, between AD. 1600-1650, the total population loss was between 40 millions and 100 millions(mainly Han Chinese plus other ethnicity), the direct result of many genocides and mass murders conducted by Manchu Qing barbarians.[1][2]
Genocides and Atrocities committed by Manchu Qing
editLiadong massacre
editThere are many historical records on the Manchu's mass murders of ethnic Han Chinese in Liaodong before they entered Shanhaiguan, and the estimated murdered victims may be as high as 3 millions.
On the first month of the ninth year of Nurhachi(Chinese:天命九年正月), nine royal decrees were issued to eliminate 'poor people'(Chinese:無穀之人, translation: people who possessed no grains). Specific orders were issued:
- All Eight Banners soldiers were to treat 'poor people' as enemies.
- Arrest them and sent them to me(Nurhachi)
- Kill all the arrested 'poor people'(Han Chinese)
Yangzhou massacre
editThe Yangzhou massacre is a massacre of mainly Han Chinese during Manchu Qing dynasty in 1645 when Manchu conquerers led by Prince Dodo conducted mass killings of the residents of Yangzhou. The atrocity lasted for ten days and the alleged number of victims was close to 800,000 (though some scholars doubt its accuracy).
The alleged reasons for the massacre were:
- To punish the residents because of resistance efforts led by Ming official Shi Kefa.
- To warn the rest of the population of the consequences of resisting the invaders.
When Manchu soldiers invaded Jiading city estimated 50,000 Han Chinese were killed by the Manchu.
Taiping Rebellion
editThe Taiping Rebellion was a large-scale revolt conducted from 1850 to 1864 by an army led by heterodox Christian convert Hong Xiuquan. Rebel troops were nicknamed the Long hair (Chinese:長毛 pinyin: cháng máo) as they sported a different hair style to the Manchu. Manchu referred to them as "hair rebels".
The rebellion caused an estimated death toll of between 20 and 30 million due to warfare and famine: the war ranks as one of the bloodiest conflicts in history (see List of wars and disasters by death toll).
Dungan revolt
edit是清代同治年間從1862年至1873年在中國陝西、甘肅爆發的一次回族和漢族之間的仇殺。它維持了十年多，波及陝西、甘肅、寧夏、青海和新疆等地區，最後被以漢人湘軍為主的清朝軍隊鎮壓。
1862年，由於漢回之間的民族衝突，加上官府的腐敗和欺壓，在陝西的回民趁太平天國和捻軍進入陝西的機會揭竿而起。其初期的主要領導人有赫明堂、馬生彥、馬振和、白彥虎等。同時在寧夏也爆發了大面積的回民民變，其主要領導人有馬兆元和馬化龍Ma Hualong。
在陝西的回軍一開始可以趁清軍忙以對付太平天國的機會在陝西中部立足，但是從1864年開始就被清軍逼迫退守陝甘邊區。
太平天國被消滅後，左宗棠率領湘軍開始對陝西山西一帶用兵。左宗棠首先進攻捻軍，在捻軍被擊破後再進攻位於陝西的回軍，1866年回軍退守甘肅。1869年左宗棠派劉松山進攻寧夏的金積堡，馬化龍父子投降後被殺。
1871年左宗棠進駐甘肅，當地回軍領袖馬占鰲投降，被左宗棠編入清軍。1872年以白彥虎為首的回軍被迫退出青海。1873年退到新疆，最後逃往俄羅斯得脫。陝甘回變由此告終。
這場戰爭極大地改變了陝甘兩省的民族分佈。在戰爭中，回民對陝西、甘肅兩省的漢人進行屠殺，據《中國人口史》一書的統計，回民起義前的咸豐十一年 （1861年），甘肅人口為1945.9萬人，戰後的光緒六年（1880年）人口僅存495.5萬人，人口損失達1455.5萬人。
西北回民對漢人的屠殺，可見甘肅各縣的縣誌。甘肅鎮原縣誌記載：「四鄉堡寨攻陷無遺，而縣城獨全，蓋四鄉之人逃出虎口者，生後入城避難。是月初九 日……（回民軍入城）……，全城糜爛，死者不知其數。」據《中國人口史》第五卷統計，回民屠城前鎮原縣人口26.9萬，戰爭損失23.4萬，損失比例為 87%。宣統《甘肅新通志》卷47記載同治二年（1863年）八月，回民軍隊「陷平涼城府官……員死節者百余，士民死者十數萬。」《中國人口史》記載，甘 肅涇州四縣，在咸豐十一年（1861年）時有人口92.8萬，戰爭中人口死亡82.2萬，損失88.6%。據該書推算，同治年間平涼府（包括華亭，隆德， 平遠，海城，固原）人口損失249.1萬，占戰前人口的88.6%。左宗棠入甘肅時，形容「遠近城邑寨堡，慘遭殺掠．民靡孑遺。平、慶、涇、固間．千里荒 蕪，彌望白骨黃茅，炊煙斷絕，被禍之慘，實為天下所無」。近代統計，西北各省漢人在同治回亂中被屠殺者，超2000萬有餘。
西北回民在民變中對漢人的大規模屠殺，是左宗棠及其湘軍在平定回變後對西北回族展開報復性屠殺的重要原因。戰前陝西省有回民180萬人，在該省人口中佔有相當比重，而且絕大部分分佈在關中地區。戰後只有西安城內未參加反清的3萬回民得以倖存，其餘回民一部分逃亡，其餘人均已死亡。甘肅省回民在戰爭中的死亡率也相當高，但仍在該省居民中佔有一定比例。一部分回民為逃避報復，隨白彥虎逃至俄國，成為今天的東干族。
稍前的時期，在雲南省也發生了大規模的回變。
The siege of the Jiangyin city lasted 81 days, estimated loss of life(mainly Han Chinese) was about 170,000; and only 53 persons were found to be alive at the end of the siege.
Over 100,000 Han Chinese were killed after Manchu soldiers invaded Chaozhou city. Monks were collecting corpses to burn before the spread of diseases.
Guangzhou massacre
edit- Guangzhou city religious record(Chinese:广州市宗教志)：On the seven year of Shunzhi Emperor (AD:1650), Manchu soldiers invaded Guangzhou city, causing the death of 700,000 of Guangzhou inhabitants. A monk had hired workers to collect corpses and remaining body parts for bury. A stone tablet monument was elected to commemorate his deed.[3]
- However other sources claimed 700,000 is an too exaggerated estimate and has no evidence. Europeans asked the locals at Guangzhou claimed 100,000 is most likely an accurate number. Siege Warfare: The fortress in the early modern world, 1494-1660 By Christopher Duff.[4] "They took Canton in 1650 after an eught month sieger, cutting down 100,000 of the citizens in the process" Warfare and armed conflicts: a statistical reference to casualty and other figures, 1500-2000. [5]"In 1650, Manchus carried an great massacred against ming defenders. In the siege of eight months upward of 100000 people died in Canton."
From the Ming historical book:(Chinese:明會要):
On AD 1578(the sixth year of Ming Wanli reign), Sichuan province had 262,694 families and population of 3,102,073.
From the historical book:(Chinese:四川道志):
On AD 1685(the 24th year of emperor Kangxi), the Sichuan population was a low 18,000. The whole of Chengdu city had less than 20 families.
When Jinan city was invaded by the Manchu, 130,000 Han Chinese were killed, and all the women that were left over were taken away.
1648年十二月，姜╴在山西大同起兵抗清，1649年，多爾袞在久攻不下大同的情況下，親征大同。同年八月姜╴部下楊振威變節，殺掉姜╴出城投降。清軍進入大同后，多爾袞下令屠城，大同城內“官吏兵民盡行誅之”。
順治七年十二月清宣大山西總督佟養亮揭貼“大同、朔州、渾源三城，已經王師屠戮，人民不存”！
滿清檔案：順治六年十一月二十一日宣大巡按金志遠題本《明清檔案》第十一冊，A11- 20中，更是由於“城破盡屠”，只好請求釋放剩下的5個“無憑究擬”的犯人。《朔州志》也承認：“城破，悉遭屠戮”。
同年昆山縣人民殺該縣清委知縣閻茂才，起兵反清。七月初六，清軍破城，隨即屠城，士民死難者達數萬人。
， 「總計城中人被屠戮者十之四，沉河墮井投繯者十之二，被俘者十之二，以逸者十之一，藏匿倖免者十之一。」（《昆新兩縣續修合志》卷五一兵紀），「殺戮一 空，其逃出城門踐溺死者，婦女、嬰孩無算。昆山頂上僧寮中，匿婦女千人，小兒一聲，搜戮殆盡，血流奔瀉，如澗水暴下」！((研堂見聞雜記))
Panthay rebellion
edit
1648年，金聲桓、王得仁在江西起兵抗清，七月初十清軍包圍南昌。次年三月間，南昌城陷，清軍屠城。
南昌大屠殺，“婦女各旗分取之，同營者迭嬲無晝夜。三伏溽炎，或旬月不得一盥拭。除所殺及道死、水死、自經死，而在營者亦十余萬，所食牛豕皆沸湯微集而 已。飽食濕臥，自願在營而死者，亦十七八。而先至之兵已各私載鹵獲連軻而下，所掠男女一併斤賣。其初有不願死者，望城破或勝，庶幾生還；至是知見掠轉賣， 長與鄉里辭也，莫不悲號動天，奮身決赴。浮屍蔽江，天為厲霾。”（徐世溥《江變紀略》）
Changshu Massacre
edit常熟大屠殺 “通衢小巷，橋畔河幹，敗屋眢井，皆積屍累累，通記不下五千餘人，而男女之被擄去者不計焉。”“沿塘樹木，人頭懸累累，皆全發鄉民也。”（《海角遺編》）
1649年正月二十一日清軍攻入湘潭，南明督師何騰蛟被俘。清鄭親王濟爾哈朗下令屠城，“屠至二十六日封刀，二十九日方止”。湘潭城中百姓几乎全被殺光，城中不滿百人。”（康熙三年《湘潭縣志》）
1649年農歷十二月二十九日，清軍抵達南雄，年三十除夕晚上清軍放火焚燒鼓樓，趁明軍慌亂救火之際，攻入城內。對南雄縣民大肆屠殺，“大清平、靖二藩克雄城，民盡屠戮，十存二三。”（乾隆十八年《南雄縣志》）
Slaves keeping and slaves killing
edit崇禎十一年冬至十二年春，清軍在畿輔、山東一帶掠去漢民四十六萬二千三百餘人，崇禎十五年冬至十六年夏，清軍又「俘獲人民三十六萬九千名口」。（《清太宗實錄》）&(滿清入關後，繼續劫掠人口。 順治二年八月辛巳日諭兵部「俘獲人口，照例給賞登城被傷之人。」（《清世祖實錄》）
漢人奴隸遭受非人的虐待，大量自殺。康熙初年，「八旗家丁每歲以自盡報部者不下二千人」（《清史稿》），由此推算，僅自殺的漢人，在滿清入關前後幾十年間，就不下10萬人。被虐待致死的，更不在少數。
由於滿清的瘋狂虐待，大量漢人奴隸逃亡，「只此數月之間，逃人已幾數萬。」（《清世祖實錄》）
滿清統治者為了制止逃往，強化其1626年頒布的《逃人法》，順治皇帝，「有隱匿逃人者斬，其鄰佑及十家長、百家長不行舉首，地方官不能覺察者，俱為連 坐」。順治六年又改為「隱匿逃人者免死，流徙」、「再行申飭，自此諭頒發之日為始，凡章奏中再有干涉逃人者，定置重罪，決不輕恕」（《清世祖實錄》）
See Also
editReferences
edit- ^ Barbarism and Civilization - Mongols And Manchu Emperors
- ^ Failure, Nationalism, and Literature By Jing Tsu.
- ^ (in Chinese:至顺治七年(1650年)十一月初二，方攻陷广州，屠城七日)
- ^ Siege Warfare: The fortress in the early modern world, 1494-1660 By Christopher Duffy.[1]
- ^ Warfare and armed conflicts: a statistical reference to casualty and other figures, 1500-2000[2]
External links
edit- Voices from the Ming-Qing Cataclysm: China in Tigers' Jaws, Struve, Lynn A. Publisher：Yale University Press, 1998 ISBN 0300075537, 9780300075533 312 pages