Geologic time
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The geologic time scale encompasses the history of the Earth.[1] It is bracketed at the young end by the dates of the earliest solar system material at 4.567 Ga[2] (gigaannum: billion years ago) and the age of the Earth at 4.54 Ga[3][4], at the beginning of the informally-recognized Hadean eon. At the young end of the scale, it is bracketed by the present day in the Holocene epoch.
Important milestones
edit- 4.567 Ga: Solar system formation[2]
- 4.54 Ga: Accretion of Earth[3][4]
- c. 4 Ga: End of Late Heavy Bombardment, first life
- c. 3.5 Ga: Start of photosynthesis
- c. 2.3 Ga: Oxygenated atmosphere, first snowball Earth
- 730–635 Ma (megaannum: million years ago): two snowball Earths
- 542± 0.3 Ma: Cambrian explosion – vast multiplication of hard-bodied life; first abundant fossils; start of the Paleozoic
- c. 380 Ma: First vertebrate land animals
- 250 Ma: Permian-Triassic extinction – 90% of all land animals die. End of Paleozoic and beginning of Mesozoic
- 66 Ma: Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction – Dinosaurs die; end of Mesozoic and beginning of Cenozoic
- c. 7 Ma – Present: Hominins
- c. 7 Ma: First hominins appear
- 3.9 Ma: First Australopithecus, direct ancestor to modern Homo sapiens, appear
- 200 ka (kiloannum: thousand years ago): First modern Homo sapiens appear in East Africa
Brief time scale
editThe second and third timelines are each subsections of their preceding timeline as indicated by asterisks. The Holocene (the latest epoch) is too small to be shown clearly on this timeline.
The following five timelines show the geologic time scale to scale. The first shows the entire time from the formation of the Earth to the present, but this gives little space for the most recent eon. The second timeline shows an expanded view of the most recent eon. In a similar way, the most recent era is expanded in the third timeline, the most recent period is expanded in the fourth timeline, and the most recent epoch is expanded in the fifth timeline.
Horizontal scale is Millions of years (above timelines) / Thousands of years (below timeline)
Relative and Absolute Dating
editGeological events can be given a precise date at a point in time, or they can be related to other events that came before and after them. Geologists use a variety of methods to give both relative and absolute dates to geological events. They then use these dates to find the rates at which processes occur.
Relative dating
editMethods for relative dating were developed when geology first emerged as a formal science. Geologists still use the following principles today as a means to provide information about geologic history and the timing of geologic events.
The principle of intrusive relationships concerns crosscutting intrusions. In geology, when an igneous intrusion cuts across a formation of sedimentary rock, it can be determined that the igneous intrusion is younger than the sedimentary rock. There are a number of different types of intrusions, including stocks, laccoliths, batholiths, sills and dikes.
The principle of cross-cutting relationships pertains to the formation of faults and the age of the sequences through which they cut. Faults are younger than the rocks they cut; accordingly, if a fault is found that penetrates some formations but not those on top of it, then the formations that were cut are older than the fault, and the ones that are not cut must be younger than the fault. Finding the key bed in these situations may help determine whether the fault is a normal fault or a thrust fault.[5]
The principle of inclusions and components states that, with sedimentary rocks, if inclusions (or clasts) are found in a formation, then the inclusions must be older than the formation that contains them. For example, in sedimentary rocks, it is common for gravel from an older formation to be ripped up and included in a newer layer. A similar situation with igneous rocks occurs when xenoliths are found. These foreign bodies are picked up as magma or lava flows, and are incorporated, later to cool in the matrix. As a result, xenoliths are older than the rock which contains them.
The principle of uniformitarianism states that the geologic processes observed in operation that modify the Earth's crust at present have worked in much the same way over geologic time.[6] A fundamental principle of geology advanced by the 18th century Scottish physician and geologist James Hutton, is that "the present is the key to the past." In Hutton's words: "the past history of our globe must be explained by what can be seen to be happening now."[citation needed]
The principle of original horizontality states that the deposition of sediments occurs as essentially horizontal beds. Observation of modern marine and non-marine sediments in a wide variety of environments supports this generalization (although cross-bedding is inclined, the overall orientation of cross-bedded units is horizontal).[5]
The principle of superposition states that a sedimentary rock layer in a tectonically undisturbed sequence is younger than the one beneath it and older than the one above it. Logically a younger layer cannot slip beneath a layer previously deposited. This principle allows sedimentary layers to be viewed as a form of vertical time line, a partial or complete record of the time elapsed from deposition of the lowest layer to deposition of the highest bed.[5]
The principle of faunal succession is based on the appearance of fossils in sedimentary rocks. As organisms exist at the same time period throughout the world, their presence or (sometimes) absence may be used to provide a relative age of the formations in which they are found. Based on principles laid out by William Smith almost a hundred years before the publication of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution, the principles of succession were developed independently of evolutionary thought. The principle becomes quite complex, however, given the uncertainties of fossilization, the localization of fossil types due to lateral changes in habitat (facies change in sedimentary strata), and that not all fossils may be found globally at the same time[7]
Absolute dating
editGeologists can also give precise absolute dates to geologic events. These dates are useful on their own, and can also be used in conjunction with relative dating methods or to calibrate relative dating methods.
A large advance in geology in the advent of the 20th century was the ability to give precise absolute dates to geologic events through radioactive isotopes and other methods. The advent of isotopic dating changed the understanding of geologic time. Before, geologists could only use fossils to date sections of rock relative to one another. With isotopic dates, absolute dating became possible, and these absolute dates could be applied fossil sequences in which there was datable material, converting the old relative ages into new absolute ages.
For many geologic applications, isotope ratios are measured in minerals that give the amount of time that has passed since a rock passed through its particular closure temperature, the point at which different radiometric isotopes stop diffusing into and out of the crystal lattice.[8][9] These are used in geochronologic and thermochronologic studies. Common methods include uranium-lead dating, potassium-argon dating and argon-argon dating, and uranium-thorium dating. These methods are used for a variety of applications. Dating of lavas and ash layers can help to date stratigraphy and calibrate relative dating techniques. These methods can also be used to determine ages of pluton emplacement. Thermochemical techniques can be used to determine temperature proiles within the crust, the uplift of mountain ranges, and paleotopography.
Fractionation of the lanthanide series elements is used to compute ages since rocks were removed from the mantle.
Other methods are used for more recent events. Optically stimulated luminescence and cosmogenic radionucleide dating are used to date surfaces and/or erosion rates. Dendrochronology can also be used for the dating of landscapes. Radiocarbon dating is used for young organic material.
References
edit- ^ International Commission on Stratigraphy
- ^ a b Amelin, Y; Krot, An; Hutcheon, Id; Ulyanov, Aa (Sep 2002). "Lead isotopic ages of chondrules and calcium-aluminum-rich inclusions". Science (New York, N.Y.). 297 (5587): 1678–83. doi:10.1126/science.1073950. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 12215641.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Patterson, C., 1956. “Age of Meteorites and the Earth.” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 10: p. 230-237.
- ^ a b G. Brent Dalrymple (1994). The age of the earth. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press. ISBN 0804723311.
- ^ a b c Olsen, Paul E. (2001). "Steno's Principles of Stratigraphy". Dinosaurs and the History of Life. Columbia University. Retrieved 2009-03-14.
- ^ Reijer Hooykaas, Natural Law and Divine Miracle: The Principle of Uniformity in Geology, Biology, and Theology, Leiden: EJ Brill, 1963.
- ^ As recounted in Simon Winchester, The Map that Changed the World (New York: HarperCollins, 2001), pp. 59-91.
- ^ Hugh R. Rollinson (1996). Using geochemical data evaluation, presentation, interpretation. Harlow: Longman. ISBN 9780582067011.
- ^ Gunter Faure. (1998). Principles and applications of geochemistry : a comprehensive textbook for geology students. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 9780023364501.