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Libertarianism is advocacy for individual liberty[1] and libertarians all support a concept of liberty. Philosophies referred to as "left-libertarianism" and "right-libertarianism" are identified as variants of a broad concept of libertarianism in philosophical literature.[2] Libertarians may embrace a variety of beliefs about political structures ranging from minimization of the state to complete abolition of the state.[3][4][5][6] The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes the minimal state as providing law enforcement, a judicial assembly, and armed forces, and, also describes the right-libertarian view called anarcho-capitalist which holds that a government is unnecessary because private companies working for profit should provide the court systems, military, and police forces.[7] In contrast to the anarcho-capitalist ideals, left-libertarian anarchists such as Noam Chomsky propose a libertarian socialist philosophy which promotes the idea that large-scale decentralization will empower workers and should be pursued to eliminate both government and private capitalist organizations, which they view as coercive.[8]

Right-libertarians may be difficult to place in the conventional left/right political spectrum as they may show strong support for traditionally left-wing issues, such as broad freedom from search and seizure, freedom of the press, and other civil liberties. Consequently, some libertarians reject being described as "left" or "right";[9] others reject being described as "anarchists".[citation needed] Among those that may be considered "right libertarian," there is also divergence in that some of these are libertarian moralists and some others are libertarian consequentialists.

History

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Etymology

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The term libertarian in a metaphysical or philosophical sense was first used by late-Enlightenment free-thinkers to refer to those who believed in free will, as opposed to determinism.[10] The first recorded use was in 1789 by William Belsham in a discussion of free will and in opposition to "necessitarian" (or determinist) views.[11][12]

The use of the word 'libertarian' to describe a set of political positions can be tracked to the French cognate, "Libertaire", which was coined in 1857 by French anarchist communist Joseph Déjacque who used the term to distinguish his libertarian communist approach from the mutualism advocated by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon.[13][14][13][15] Hence the term "libertaire" has been used as a synonym for left wing anarchism or libertarian socialism since the 1890s.[16]

In the 1950s in the United States many with classical liberal beliefs began to describe themselves as "libertarian."[17] Academics as well as proponents of the free market perspectives note that free market libertarianism has been successfully propagated beyond the US since the 1970s via think tanks and political parties [18][19] and that libertarianism is increasingly viewed worldwide as a free market position.[20][21] However Libertarian socialists Noam Chomsky, Colin Ward and others state that the term is still considered a synonym of anarchism in countries other than the US.[22][23][24]

The term libertarianism is sometimes used as a synonym for anarchism, with that use being especially common outside the United States;,[25] which some explain this to be the original meaning of the term, and, hence, under that definition, "libertarian socialism" is equivalent to "socialist anarchism".[26][27] The American use of term includes non-anarchist free-market political philosophy.

Philosophical origins and history

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Enlightenment ideas of individual liberty, limited government, peace and a free market were part of a growing movement in the 19th century. Peter Kropotkin's The Great French Revolution (1909) asserts that the principles of anarchism had their origin in the directly democratic sections of Paris.[28] According to the same author's 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica article on anarchism, the economic and, in particular, the mutual banking ideas of Proudhon were applied by supporters in the United States.[29] The article states that, "It would be impossible to represent here, in a short sketch, the penetration, on the one hand, of anarchist ideas into modern literature, and the influence, on the other hand, which the libertarian ideas of the best contemporary writers have exercised upon the development of anarchism." Writers he names include John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Jean-Marie Guyau, Alfred Jules Émile Fouillée, Multatuli, Richard Wagner, Friedrich Nietzsche, Ralph Waldo Emerson, William Lloyd Garrison and Henry David Thoreau.[30]

Numerous left libertarians or libertarian socialists around the world have labeled themselves as such throughout the 20th century.[31][32][33] The most significant manifestations at a mass level of libertarian groups opposed to the property principle have been revolutionary socialist workers' movements. Examples repeatedly cited in the literature include the American Industrial Workers of the World, the Makhnovist movement in Ukraine during the Russian revolution of 1917, the CNT and the FAI during the Spanish Civil War, and the Italian autonomist movement. The EZLN movement in Mexico has maintained a significance within Mexican politics since the early 1990s.

Some proponents within the growing movement for more civil liberties also pursued strong private property rights, and this movement came to be referred to as liberalism. While liberalism kept that meaning in most of the world, modern liberalism in the United States began to take a more statist approach to economic regulation.[34][35] While conservatism in Europe continued to mean conserving hierarchical class structures through state control of society and the economy, some conservatives in the United States began to refer to conserving traditions of liberty. This was especially true of the Old Right, who opposed the New Deal and U.S. military interventions in World War I and World War II.[36][37]

Those who held to the earlier liberal views began to call themselves market liberals, classic liberals or libertarians to distinguish themselves.[35] (Some limited government advocates still use the term "libertarianism" almost interchangeably with the term classical liberalism.)[38][39]

The Austrian School of economics, influenced by Frédéric Bastiat and later by Ludwig von Mises,[40] also had an impact on both economic teaching and right-libertarian principles.[41][42] It influenced economists, political philosophers, and theorists including Israel Kirzner and Murray Rothbard.

Ayn Rand's international bestsellers The Fountainhead (1943) and Atlas Shrugged (1957) and her books about her philosophy of Objectivism influenced modern libertarianism.[43] Two other women also published influential pro-freedom books in 1943, Rose Wilder Lane's The Discovery of Freedom and Isabel Paterson's The God of the Machine.[44]

Arizona United States Senator Barry Goldwater's libertarian-oriented challenge to authority had a major impact on the libertarian movement,[45] through his book The Conscience of a Conservative and his run for president in 1964.[46] Goldwater's speech writer, Karl Hess, became a leading libertarian writer and activist.[47]

The Vietnam War split the uneasy alliance between growing numbers of self-identified libertarians, anarchist libertarians, and more traditional conservatives who believed in limiting liberty to uphold moral virtues. Libertarians opposed to the war joined the draft resistance and peace movements and organisations such as Students for a Democratic Society. They began founding their own publications, like Murray Rothbard's The Libertarian Forum[48][49] and organizations like the Radical Libertarian Alliance.[50]

The split was aggravated at the 1969 Young Americans for Freedom convention, when more than 300 libertarians organized to take control of the organization from conservatives. The burning of a draft card in protest to a conservative proposal against draft resistance sparked physical confrontations among convention attendees, a walkout by a large number of libertarians, the creation of libertarian organizations like the Society for Individual Liberty, and efforts to recruit potential libertarians from conservative organizations.[51] The split was finalized in 1971 when conservative leader William F. Buckley, Jr., in a 1971 New York Times article, attempted to divorce libertarianism from the freedom movement. He wrote: "The ideological licentiousness that rages through America today makes anarchy attractive to the simple-minded. Even to the ingeniously simple-minded."[44]

In 1971, David Nolan and a few friends formed the Libertarian Party.[52] Attracting former Democrats, Republicans and independents, it has run a presidential candidate every election year since 1972. By 2006, polls showed that 15 percent of American voters identified themselves as libertarian.[53] Over the years, dozens of libertarian political parties have been formed worldwide. Educational organizations like the Center for Libertarian Studies and the Cato Institute were formed in the 1970s, and others have been created since then.[54]

Philosophical libertarianism gained a significant measure of recognition in academia with the publication of Harvard University professor Robert Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia in 1974. The book won a National Book Award in 1975.[55] According to libertarian essayist Roy Childs, "Nozick's Anarchy, State, and Utopia single-handedly established the legitimacy of libertarianism as a political theory in the world of academia."[56]

Philosophies

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The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy states a strict view of libertarianism "holds that agents initially fully own themselves and have moral powers to acquire property rights in external things under certain conditions," and that "in a looser sense, libertarianism is any view that approximates the strict view"[57] Also noted is that libertarianism is not a "right-wing" doctrine because of its opposition to laws restricting adult consensual sexual relationships and drug use, and its opposition to imposing religious views or practices and compulsory military service. The Stanford Encyclopedia further describes versions of libertarianism, such as “left-libertarianism” stating that this philosophy also endorses full self-ownership, but "differs on unappropriated natural resources (land, air, water, etc.)." "Right-libertarianism" holds that such resources may be appropriated by individuals while "left-libertarianism" holds that they belong to everyone and must be distributed in some egalitarian manner.[57]

According to the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy:

Libertarians are committed to the belief that individuals, and not states or groups of any other kind, are both ontologically and normatively primary; that individuals have rights against certain kinds of forcible interference on the part of others; that liberty, understood as non-interference, is the only thing that can be legitimately demanded of others as a matter of legal or political right; that robust property rights and the economic liberty that follows from their consistent recognition are of central importance in respecting individual liberty; that social order is not at odds with but develops out of individual liberty; that the only proper use of coercion is defensive or to rectify an error; that governments are bound by essentially the same moral principles as individuals; and that most existing and historical governments have acted improperly insofar as they have utilized coercion for plunder, aggression, redistribution, and other purposes beyond the protection of individual liberty.[58]

 
The Nolan chart, used by some pro-property libertarians, expands upon the traditional "right-left" spectrum.

All schools of libertarianism support strong personal rights to life and liberty, though there is disagreement on the subject of private property. One relatively popular formulation of libertarianism supports free market capitalism[59] by advocating a right to private property, including property in the means of production,[60] minimal government regulation of that property, minimal taxation, and rejection of the welfare state, all within the context of the rule of law.[61][62][63] Some pro-property libertarians are anarchists who call for the elimination of the state.[64]

A number of countries have libertarian parties that run candidates for political office. The US Libertarian Party supports a right-libertarian platform; Libertarian conservatism is dominant among the schools of libertarianism in the US.[citation needed] In Europe, scholars have studied "the 'family' of left-libertarian movements in...France, Germany, the Netherlands, and Switzerland";[65] The Danish Socialist People's Party is one of the political parties considered to be left-libertarian.[66]

Isaiah Berlin's 1958 essay "Two Concepts of Liberty" describes a difference between negative liberty, which limits the power of the state to interfere, and positive liberty, in which a paternalistic state helps individuals achieve self-realization and self-determination. He believed these were rival and incompatible interpretations of liberty, and held that demands for positive liberty lead to authoritarianism.[67]

Libertarians contrast two ethical views: consequentialist libertarianism, which is support for a large degree of "liberty" because it leads to favorable consequences, such as prosperity or efficiency and deontological libertarianism (also known as "rights-theorist libertarianism," "natural rights libertarianism," or "libertarian moralism"), which is a philosophy based on belief in moral self-ownership and opposition to "initiation of force" and fraud.[failed verification] Others combine a hybrid of consequentialist and deontologist thinking.[68] Another view, contractarian libertarianism, holds that any legitimate authority of government derives not from the consent of the governed, but from contract or mutual agreement.[69][70][71]

Libertarians maintain that what is immoral for the individual must necessarily be immoral for all state agents and that the state should not be above the law.[72][73]

Libertarianism is not a complete moral or aesthetic theory; it is only a political theory, that is, the subset of moral theory that deals with the proper role of violence in social life.[74] Thus, while libertarianism holds that the state should not, for instance, forcibly prohibit prostitution, it makes no judgments on whether prostitution is an ethical activity; indeed, some libertarians condemn prostitution as immoral. Walter Block writes, "How, then, can we defend the immoral activities of some market actors? This stems from the philosophy of libertarianism, which is limited to analyzing one single problem. It asks, under what conditions is violence justified? And it answers, violence is justified only for purposes of defense, or in response to prior aggression, or in retaliation against it. This means, among other things, that government is not justified in fining, punishing, incarcerating, imposing death penalties on people who act in an immoral manner—as long as they refrain from threatening or initiating physical violence on the persons or property of others."[75]

Forms of libertarianism

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Libertarian views vary in respect to how much state will survive in a libertarian society and how much private property should be held by individuals and groups. Left-libertarian and right-libertarian groups form a broad grouping of libertarians,[76][77][78] and elsewhere.[79][80][81] of which the following there are smaller groupings. The following are some of the groups that are included under a broad concept of "libertarianism". For a complete list see List of political ideologies.

Minarchism

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Main article: Minarchism

Minarchism refers to the belief in a state limited to police forces, courts, and a military. In minarchism, the state neither regulates nor intervenes in personal choices and business practices, except to protect against aggression, breach of contract, and fraud.[82][83] Both market anarchists and minarchists oppose victimless crimes, the War on Drugs, compulsory education, and conscription at all levels of government.[83]

However, minarchists often disagree on the level of government centralization. This ranges from the centralist minarchists who support the enforcement of laws at the global or national governments, to the middle-ground minarchists who advocate states' rights or increased autonomy at the state level, and to the decentralist minarchists who think that every city or town should have its own government. Such proponents of extreme decentralization include Albert Jay Nock and Jeffersonian republicans [84] and, of course, Thomas Jefferson himself.

Libertarian conservatism

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Main article: Libertarian conservatism

Libertarian conservatism, also known as conservative libertarianism (and sometimes called right-libertarianism), describes certain political ideologies that attempt to meld libertarian and conservative ideas, often called "fusionism."[85][86] Anthony Gregory writes that right, or conservative, "libertarianism can refer to any number of varying and at times mutually exclusive political orientations" such as being "interested mainly in 'economic freedoms'"; following the "conservative lifestyle of right-libertarians"; seeking "others to embrace their own conservative lifestyle"; considering big business "as a great victim of the state"; favoring a "strong national defense"; and having "an Old Right opposition to empire."[87]

Conservatives hold that shared values, morals, standards, and traditions are necessary for social order while libertarians consider individual liberty as the highest value.[88] Laurence M. Vance writes: "Some libertarians consider libertarianism to be a lifestyle rather than a political philosophy... They apparently don't know the difference between libertarianism and libertinism."[89] However, Edward Feser emphasizes that libertarianism does not require individuals to reject traditional conservative values.[85]

"Paleolibertarianism" is a school of thought devised by Lew Rockwell and the late Murray Rothbard. Rockwell no longer favours the use of the term "paleolibertarian".[90] Closely associated with the Austrian School of economics, most paleolibertarians identify as anarcho-capitalist. Though they advocate the elimination of the state, paleolibertarians disagree with other libertarians on reforming the state, such as illegal immigration and the legitimacy of state property.[91]

Some "libertarian constitutionalists" like U.S. Representative Ron Paul believe liberty can be obtained through proper interpretation of the United States Constitution, something that would not allow federal incursions on the economy and civil liberties.[92][93] Other libertarians critique constitutionalism for failure of its proponents to check the growth of government power.[94][95][96]

Left-libertarianism

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Main article: Left-libertarianism

Left-libertarianism is usually regarded as doctrine that has an egalitarian view concerning natural resources, believing that it is not legitimate for someone to claim private ownership of such resources to the detriment of others.[57][97][98] Most left libertarians support some form of income redistribution on the grounds of a claim by each individual to be entitled to an equal share of natural resources.[98] Left libertarianism is defended by contemporary theorists such as Peter Vallentyne, Hillel Steiner and Michael Otsuka.[99] The term is also sometimes used as a synonym for libertarian socialism.[100]

The Encyclopedia of Political Theory describes Noam Chomsky as an anti-statist left-libertarian.[101] Chomsky shares an egalitarian view of resources such as natural capital. Libertarians like Chomsky promote free association in place of governments and institutions of capitalism [private ownership and control over the means of production.[8]

Some members of the U.S. libertarian movement, including the late Samuel Edward Konkin,[102] and such members of the Alliance of the Libertarian Left[103] as Roderick Long,[104] and Gary Chartier support property rights and identify themselves with the political left for a variety of reasons. They tend to oppose intellectual property,[105] war, and state policies they believe cause poverty.[106]

Anarcho-capitalism

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Main article: Anarcho-capitalism

Anarcho-capitalism (also known as “libertarian anarchy”[107][108] or “market anarchism”[109] or “free market anarchism”[110]) is a libertarian[111][112] and an individualist anarchist[113] political philosophy that advocates the elimination of the state and the elevation of the individual in a free market. Anarcho-capitalism has been described as a radical[5] or extremist[6] form of libertarianism. In an anarcho-capitalist society, law enforcement, courts, and all other security services are provided by voluntarily funded competitors such as private defense agencies rather than through compulsory taxation. Because personal and economic activities are regulated by the natural laws of the market through private law rather than through politics, crimes against the state and victimless crimes would be rendered moot.

Beyond their agreeing that security should be privately provided by market-based entities, proponents of free-market anarchism have varying opinions on other aspects of their philosophies, particularly justification, tactics and property rights.

Libertarian transhumanism

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Main article: Libertarian transhumanism

Libertarian transhumanism asserts that the principle of self-ownership is fundamental to both libertarianism and transhumanism. The philosophy advocates free market individualism as the best vehicle for technological progress and the "right to human enhancement."[114][115] Some criticize it as utopian, overly reliant on technology or biological fetishism.[116][117][118]

Geolibertarianism

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Main article: Geolibertarianism

Geolibertarianism is a political movement that strives to reconcile libertarianism and Georgism (or "geoism").[119][120] The term was coined by Fred Foldvary. Geolibertarians are advocates of geoism, which is the position that all land is a common asset to which all individuals have an equal right to access, and therefore if individuals claim the land as their property they must pay rent to the community for doing so. Rent need not be paid for the mere use of land, but only for the right to exclude others from that land, and for the protection of one's title by government. They simultaneously agree with the libertarian position that each individual has an exclusive right to the fruits of his or her labor as their private property, as opposed to this product being owned collectively by society or the community, and that "one's labor, wages, and the products of labor" should not be taxed. In agreement with traditional libertarians they advocate "full civil liberties, with no crimes unless there are victims who have been invaded." In the voluntary geolibertarianism described by Foldvary, rent would be collected by private associations with the opportunity to secede from a geocommunity if desired.[121]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Merriam-Webster online dictionary
  2. ^ For examples of philosophical literature describing the left/right variations of libertarianism, see:
    • Bevir, Mark. Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications, 2010. page 811;
    • Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. ISSN 1095-5054. Retrieved March 5, 2010. in addition to the better-known version of libertarianism—right-libertarianism—there is also a version known as 'left-libertarianism' {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help);
    • Christiano, Thomas, and John P. Christman. Contemporary Debates in Political Philosophy. Contemporary debates in philosophy, 11. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. page 121;
    • Lawrence C. Becker, Charlotte B. Becker. Encyclopedia of ethics, Volume 3 Encyclopedia of Ethics, Charlotte B. Becker, ISBN 0415936721, 9780415936729 page 1562;
    • Paul, Ellen F. Liberalism: Old and New. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007. page 187; and
    • Sapon, Vladimir; Robino, Sam (2010). "Right and Left Wings in Libertarianism". Canadian Social Science. 5 (6).
  3. ^ Roderick T. Long, Tibor R. Machan, Anarchism/minarchism: is a government part of a free country?, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2008, p.90, ISBN 0754660664, 9780754660668
  4. ^ Edward Stringham, Anarchy and the law: the political economy of choice, Transaction Publishers, 2007 p. 504, ISBN1412805791, 9781412805797
  5. ^ a b Hamowy, Ronald. The encyclopedia of libertarianism. p. 194. ...the radical libertarian position known as "anarcho-capitalism," ...even the limited functions of the night watchman state (police, courts, law, punishment) can and should be privately supplied.
  6. ^ a b The International Encyclopedia of Public Policy. Oxford University Press. 2008.
  7. ^ "Libertarianism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved August 2, 2010.
  8. ^ a b Chomsky, Noam; Peregrín Otero, Carlos (Sep 2003). "Introduction to Chomskys Social Theory by Carlos Peregrin Otero". Radical priorities. AK Press. {{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  9. ^ It has been proposed instead that libertarianism be defined as the northern region on an axis that ranges from north/libertarian (or state-free) to south/authoritarian (or state- controlled).J.C. Lester (1994). "The evolution of the political compass (and why libertarianism is not right-wing)". Journal of Social and Evolutionary Systems. 17 (3): 231–241. doi:10.1016/1061-7361(94)90011-6.
    • Brendon Swedlow writes that 50 years of research on public opinion shows that a one-dimensional model of ideology is a poor description of political attitudes for the overwhelming proportion of people virtually everywhere.Brendon Swedlow (June 2008). "Beyond liberal and conservative: Two-dimensional conceptions of ideology and the structure of political attitudes and values". Journal of Political Ideologies. 13 (2): 157–180. doi:10.1080/13569310802075969. S2CID 143482694.
    • Sheldon Richman, Libertarianism: Left or Right?, Future of Freedom Foundation's "Freedom Daily," June 2007. "Is libertarianism of the Left or of the Right? We often avoid this question with a resounding 'Neither!'"
  10. ^ David Boaz, Libertarianism: A Primer, Free Press, 1998, 22-25.
  11. ^ William Belsham, "Essays", printed for C. Dilly, 1789; original from the University of Michigan, p. 11, digitized May 21, 2007.
  12. ^ Oxford English Dictionary definition of libertarianism
  13. ^ a b Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas - Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE-1939)], ed. Robert Graham; includes English translations of Joseph Dejacque’s 1857 letter to Proudhon.
  14. ^ “De l'être-humain mâle et femelle–Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque” (in French)
  15. ^ Pelosse, Valentin (1972). Joseph Déjacque and the Neologism Libertarian
  16. ^ Nettlau, Max (1996). A Short History of Anarchism. Freedom Press. p. 162. ISBN 0900384891.
  17. ^ Russell, Dean (May 1955). "Who Is A Libertarian?". The Freeman. 5 (5). The Foundation for Economic Education. Retrieved March 6, 2010.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  18. ^ Steven Teles and Daniel A. Kenney, chapter "Spreading the Word: The diffusion of American Conservativsm in Europe and beyond," (p. 136-169) in Growing apart?: America and Europe in the twenty-first century by Sven Steinmo, Cambridge University Press, 2008, ISBN 0-521-87931-0, 9780521879316 The chapter discusses how libertarian ideas have been more successful at spreading worldwide than social conservative ideas.
  19. ^ Anthony Gregory, Real World Politics and Radical Libertarianism, LewRockwell.com, April 24, 2007.
  20. ^ David Boaz, Preface for the Japanese Edition of Libertarianism: A Primer, reprinted at Cato.org, November 21, 1998.
  21. ^ Radicals for Capitalism (Book Review), New York Post, February 4, 2007.
  22. ^ The Week Online Interviews Chomsky, Z Magazine, February 23, 2002. "The term libertarian as used in the US means something quite different from what it meant historically and still means in the rest of the world. Historically, the libertarian movement has been the anti-statist wing of the socialist movement. Socialist anarchism was libertarian socialism. In the US, which is a society much more dominated by business, the term has a different meaning. It means eliminating or reducing state controls, mainly controls over private tyrannies. Libertarians in the US don't say let's get rid of corporations. It is a sort of ultra-rightism. "
  23. ^ Colin Ward, Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 62. "For a century, anarchists have used the word 'libertarian' as a synonym for 'anarchist', both as a noun and an adjective. The celebrated anarchist journal Le Libertaire was founded in 1896. However, much more recently the word has been appropriated by various American free-market philosophers..."
  24. ^ Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement, Sharp Press, 2001, p. 9. "Thus, in the United States, the once exceedingly useful term "libertarian" has been hijacked by egotists who are in fact enemies of liberty in the full sense of the word."
  25. ^
    • Ward, Colin. Anarchism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press 2004 p. 62
    • Goodway, David. Anarchists Seed Beneath the Snow. Liverpool Press. 2006, p. 4
    • MacDonald, Dwight & Wreszin, Michael. Interviews with Dwight Macdonald. University Press of Mississippi, 2003. p. 82
    • Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv
    • Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO / University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126
    • Woodcock, George. Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Broadview Press, 2004. (Uses the terms interchangeably, such as on page 10)
    • Skirda, Alexandre. Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002. p. 183.
    • Fernandez, Frank. Cuban Anarchism. The History of a Movement. See Sharp Press, 2001, page 9.
  26. ^ Noam Chomsky, Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, 2004, p. 739.
  27. ^ Perlin, Terry M. (1979). Contemporary Anarchism. Transaction Publishers. p. 40. ISBN 0878550976.
  28. ^ Peter Kropotkin, The Great French Revolution, 1789-1793 (Elephant Editions, 1986), vol. 1, pages 204 and 206
  29. ^ Peter Kropotkin, Marshall Shatz, The conquest of bread and other writings, p. xv, Cambridge University Press, 1995 ISBN 0521459907, 9780521459907
  30. ^ 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica, contributed by Peter Kropotkin.
  31. ^ Skirda, Alexandre.Facing the Enemy: A History of Anarchist Organization from Proudhon to May 1968. AK Press 2002, p. 183
  32. ^ Bufe, Charles. The Heretic's Handbook of Quotations. See Sharp Press, 1992. p. iv.
  33. ^ Gay, Kathlyn. Encyclopedia of political anarchy, University of Michigan, 2006, p. 126-127.
  34. ^ Godfrey Hodgson, The United States, Volume 2, p. 622, Facts on File, 1992, ISBN0816018308, 9780816018307 Hodgson describes this new liberalism as a “pro-state or statist ideology.”
  35. ^ a b "The Achievements of Nineteenth-Century Classical Liberalism". Cato University Home Study Course. Cato Institute. Retrieved March 5, 2010.
  36. ^ Murray Rothbard, The Libertarian Heritage: The American Revolution and Classical Liberalism, excerpted from the first chapter of For a New Liberty: The Libertarian Manifesto, at LewRockwell.com.
  37. ^ Murray Rothbard, The Life and Death of the Old Right, first published in the September 1990 issue of The Rothbard-Rockwell Report, at LewRockwell.com.
  38. ^ Raimondo Cubeddu, preface to "Perspectives of Libertarianism", Etica e Politica (Università di Trieste) V, no. 2 (2003). "It is often difficult to distinguish between 'Libertarianism' and 'Classical Liberalism.' Those two labels are used almost interchangeably by those whom we may call libertarians of a minarchist persuasion: scholars who, following Locke and Nozick, believe a state is needed in order to achieve effective protection of property rights."
  39. ^ Steffen W. Schmidt, American Government and Politics Today (Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth, 2004), 17.
  40. ^ DiLorenzo, Thomas, "Frederic Bastiat (1801–1850): Between the French and Marginalist Revolutions, Ludwig von Mises Institute.
  41. ^ What is Austrian Economics?, Ludwig Von Mises Institute.
  42. ^ Richard M. Ebeling, Austrian Economics and the Political Economy of Freedom, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2003, 163–179 ISBN 1-84064-940-2, 9781840649406.
  43. ^ Brian Doherty, Ayn Rand at 100: "Yours Is the Glory", Cato Institute Policy Report Vol. XXVII No. 2 (March/April 2005).
  44. ^ a b Jude Blanchette, What Libertarians and Conservatives Say About Each Other: An Annotated Bibliography, LewRockwell.com, October 27, 2004.
  45. ^ Henry J. Silverman, American radical thought: the libertarian tradition, p. 279, 1970, Heath publishing.
  46. ^ Robert Poole, In memoriam: Barry Goldwater – Obituary, Reason Magazine, August–Sept, 1998.
  47. ^ Hess, Karl. The Death of Politics, Interview in Playboy, July 1976.
  48. ^ Murray Rothbard, The Early 1960s: From Right to Left, excerpt from chapter 13 of Murray Rothbard The Betrayal of the American Right, Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007.
  49. ^ Ronald Lora, William Henry Longton, Conservative press in 20th-century America, p. 367-374, Greenwood Publishing Group, 1999, ISBN 0-313-21390-9, 9780313213908
  50. ^ Marc Jason Gilbert, The Vietnam War on campus: other voices, more distant drums, p. 35, 2001, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN0275969096, 9780275969097
  51. ^ Rebecca E. Klatch, A Generation Divided: The New Left, the New Right, and the 1960s, University of California Press, 1999 ISBN 0-520-21714-4, 215–237.
  52. ^ Bill Winter, "1971–2001: The Libertarian Party's 30th Anniversary Year: Remembering the first three decades of America's 'Party of Principle'" LP News
  53. ^ The Libertarian Vote, by David Boaz and David Kirby. Cato Institute policy analysis paper 580, October 18, 2006. The Libertarian Vote
  54. ^ International Society for Individual Liberty Freedom Network list.
  55. ^ David Lewis Schaefer, Robert Nozick and the Coast of Utopia, The New York Sun, April 30, 2008.
  56. ^ The Advocates Robert Nozick page.
  57. ^ a b c Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. ISSN 1095-5054. Retrieved March 5, 2010. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  58. ^ Zwolinski, Matt (March 26, 2008). "Libertarianism". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved March 5, 2010.
  59. ^ Works describing right-libertarianism as better-known include:
    • Wolff, Johnathan. "Libertarianism." Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 4. Taylor & Francis, 1998. p. 617. Quote: “More typically it is associated with a view which champions particularly pure forms of capitalism.”
    • Stanford Encyclopedia article, quote: "the better-known version of libertarianism—right-libertarianism."
    • Vallentyne, Peter. "Liberalism and the State." Liberalism: Old and New. Eds. Jeffrey Paul and Fred D. Miller. Cambridge University Press, 2007. p. 187. Quote: "The best known form of libertarianism - right-libertarianism..."
  60. ^ Allen E. Buchanan, Ethics, efficiency, and the market, Rowman & Littlefield, p. 65, 1985 ISBN 0847673960 “In libertarian theories generally, a very broad right to private property, including private ownership of the means of production, is morally fundamental and determines both the most basic principles of individual conduct and the legitimate role of the state.”
  61. ^ Carl H. Botan, Vincent Hazleton, Public relations theory II, p. 262, 2006 ISBN 0805833854, 9780805833850 “Worldwide, libertarianism has been as much the hallmark of media struggles for political and economic independence as it has been for nonmedia enterprises seeking liberalized investment policies; it has also been a rationale for establishing privately owned media.”
  62. ^ David Boaz, Preface for the Japanese Edition of Libertarianism: A Primer, reprinted at Cato.org, November 21, 1998.”The largest trends in the world reflect libertarian values. Communism is virtually gone, and few people still defend state socialism. Eastern Europe is struggling to achieve societies based on property rights, markets, and the rule of law.”
  63. ^ for Capitalism (Book Review), New York Post, February 4, 2007. “Libertarians have helped bring about policy changes such as deregulation, tax cuts, privatization and an end to the military draft and have encouraged market-oriented reforms throughout the world.”
  64. ^ Ronald Hamowy, The encyclopedia of libertarianism, Sage, 2008, p. 11, 13, 227, 243, ISBN 1412965802
  65. ^ Klandermans, Bert, and Conny Roggeband. Handbook of Social Movements Across Disciplines. New York: Springer, 2009. page 130
  66. ^ Frankel, Benjamin. History in Dispute. Detroit: St. James Press, 2000. page 129
  67. ^ Positive and Negative Liberty, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Oct 8, 2007.
  68. ^ Wolff, Jonathan. "Libertarianism, Utility, and Economic Competition" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  69. ^ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on "Contractarianism", revised April 4, 2007.
  70. ^ Anthony de Jasay, Hayek: Some Missing Pieces, The Review of Austrian Economics Vol. 9,NO.1 (1996): 107–18, ISSN0889-3047
  71. ^ Hardy Bouillon, Hartmut Kliemt, Ordered Anarchy Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007, foreward, ISBN 0-7546-6113-X, 9780754661139
  72. ^ Murray N. Rothbard. Myth and Truth About Libertarianism from a conference paper presented at Philadelphia Society in Chicago April 1979.
  73. ^ Kenny Johnsson interviews Lew Rockwell for The Liberal Post Do You Consider Yourself a Libertarian? LewRockwell.com 2007.
  74. ^ MN Rothbard (1980). "Myth and Truth About Libertarianism" (PDF). Modern Age. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  75. ^ Block, Walter. Defending the Undefendable (PDF).
  76. ^ Bevir, Mark. Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications, 2010. page 811.
  77. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (September 5, 2002). "Libertarianism". In Edward N. Zalta (ed.). The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2009 ed.). Stanford, CA: Stanford University. ISSN 1095-5054. Retrieved March 5, 2010. in addition to the better-known version of libertarianism—right-libertarianism—there is also a version known as "left-libertarianism". {{cite encyclopedia}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  78. ^ Christiano, Thomas, and John P. Christman. Contemporary Debates in Political Philosophy. Contemporary debates in philosophy, 11. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009. page 121
  79. ^ Lawrence C. Becker, Charlotte B. Becker. Encyclopedia of ethics, Volume 3 Encyclopedia of Ethics, Charlotte B. Becker, ISBN 0415936721, 9780415936729 page 1562
  80. ^ Paul, Ellen F. Liberalism: Old and New. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007. page 187
  81. ^ Sapon, Vladimir; Robino, Sam (2010). "Right and Left Wings in Libertarianism". Canadian Social Science. 5 (6).
  82. ^ Marcus, B.K. BlackCrayon.com: Dictionary: Definition of "minarchism"
  83. ^ a b Gregory, Anthory.The Minarchist's Dilemma. Strike The Root. 10 May 2004.
  84. ^ Albert Jay Nock. Jefferson. Brace and Company, 1926. p. 199. "Thus [Jefferson] was quite regularly for State rights against the Union, for county rights against the State, for township rights or village rights against the county, and for private rights against all."
  85. ^ a b Edward Feser, What Libertarianism Isn't, Lew Rockwell.com, December 22, 2001.
  86. ^ Ralph Raico, Is Libertarianism Amoral?, New Individualist Review, Volume 3, Number 3, Fall 1964, 29–36; republished by Ludwig von Mises Institute, April 4, 2005.
  87. ^ Anthony Gregory, Left, Right, Moderate and Radical, LewRockwell.com, December 21, 2006.
  88. ^ Cathy Young, Enforcing Virtue: Is social stigma a threat to liberty, or is it liberty in action?, review of "Freedom & Virtue: The Conservative Libertarian Debate", Reason, March 2007.
  89. ^ Vance, Laurence (January 29, 2008). "Is Ron Paul Wrong on Abortion?". LewRockwell.com. Retrieved 2008-07-01.
  90. ^ Do You Consider Yourself a Libertarian?, Kenny Johnsson interviews Lew Rockwell for The Liberal Post, as posted on LewRockwell.Com, May 25, 2007.
  91. ^ For further elaboration see "Wrong, Pat, wrong" by Karen De Coster, and "The Trouble With 'Cracking Down on Immigration'" by Anthony Gregory
  92. ^ Anthony Gregory. What's left of the old right.
  93. ^ Anthony Gregory, A Revolutionary Manifesto
  94. ^ Jørn K. Baltzersen. For Ceremonies and Emergencies. 2006-06-22.
  95. ^ Butler Shaffer. The Death of the American State.
  96. ^ DiLorenzo, Thomas. "Constitutional Futility". LewRockwell.com. Retrieved 2008-07-02.
  97. ^ Prof. Will Kymlicka "libertarianism, left-" in Honderich, Ted (2005). The Oxford Companion to Philosophy. City: Oxford U Pr, N Y. ISBN 9780199264797. See also Steiner, Hillel & Vallentyne. 2000. Left-Libertarianism and Its Critics: The Contemporary Debate. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 1.
  98. ^ a b Gaus, Gerald F. & Kukathas, Chandran. 2004. Handbook of Political Theory. Sage Publications Inc. p. 128.
  99. ^ Vallentyne, Peter (2000). Left-Libertarianism and Its Critics Left-Libertarianism and Its Critics: The Contemporary Debate. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 1. ISBN 9780312236991. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  100. ^ e.g. Faatz, Chris, "Toward[s] a Libertarian Socialism."
  101. ^ Bevir, Mark. Encyclopedia of Political Theory. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage Publications, 2010. page 34.
  102. ^ Konkin was the founder of agorism, author of the New Libertarian Manifesto, and founder of the Movement of the Libertarian Left
  103. ^ The Alliance of the Libertarian Left "is a multi-tendency coalition of mutualists, agorists, voluntaryists, geolibertarians, left-Rothbardians, green libertarians, dialectical anarchists, radical minarchists, and others on the libertarian left, united by an opposition to statism and militarism, to cultural intolerance (including sexism, racism, and homophobia), and to the prevailing corporatist capitalism falsely called a free market; as well as by an emphasis on education, direct action, and building alternative institutions, rather than on electoral politics, as our chief strategy for achieving liberation."
  104. ^ Long is a well-known writer on left-libertarian zines and blogs. One of his descriptions of the political spectrum is in his article for the Ludwig von Mises Institute entitled Rothbard's "Left and Right": Forty Years Later
  105. ^ Long, Roderick. "url-http://praxeology.net/anticopyright.htm". Molinari Institute. {{cite book}}: External link in |contribution= (help); Missing or empty |title= (help)
  106. ^ See Charles Johnson, "Scratching By: How Government Creates Poverty As We Know It"
  107. ^ Edward Stringham, Anarchy and the law: the political economy of choice, Transaction Publishers, 2007, p. 268, ISBN 1412805791, 9781412805797
  108. ^ David D. Friedman, The machinery of freedom: guide to a radical capitalism, Edition 2, Open Court, 1995, p. 19 ISBN 0812690699, 9780812690699
  109. ^ Roderick T. Long, Tibor R. Machan, Anarchism/minarchism: is a government part of a free country?, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2008, Preface, ISBN0754660664, 9780754660668
  110. ^ Edward Stringham, Anarchy and the law: the political economy of choice, p. 504
  111. ^ Ronald Hamowy, Editor, The encyclopedia of libertarianism, p 10-12, p 195.
  112. ^ Edward Stringham, Anarchy and the law: the political economy of choice, p 51
  113. ^ Adams, Ian. 2002. Political Ideology Today. p. 135. Manchester University Press; Ostergaard, Geoffrey. 2003. Anarchism. In W. Outwaite (Ed.), The Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought. p. 14. Blackwell Publishing
  114. ^ Hughes, James (2001). "Politics of Transhumanism" (Document). {{cite document}}: Cite document requires |publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)
  115. ^ Bailey, Ronald (2005). Liberation Biology: The Scientific And Moral Case For The Biotech Revolution. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1591022274.
  116. ^ Barbrook, Richard; Cameron, Andy (2000). "The California Ideology" (Document). {{cite document}}: Cite document requires |publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  117. ^ Borsook, Paulina (2000). Cyberselfish: A Critical Romp Through the Terribly Libertarian Culture of High-Tech. PublicAffairs. ISBN 1-891620-78-9.
  118. ^ Giesen, Klaus-Gerd (2004). "Transhumanisme et génétique humaine" (Document). {{cite document}}: Cite document requires |publisher= (help); Unknown parameter |accessdate= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |url= ignored (help)
  119. ^ Foldvary, Fred E., Geoism and Libertarianism. The Progress Report.
  120. ^ Karen DeCoster, Henry George and the Tariff Question, LewRockwell.com, April 19, 2006.
  121. ^ Fred E. Foldvary, "In the case of geoanarchism," "Land and Liberty," May/June 1981, pp. 53–55.

Bibliography

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