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Drafting - Florida Box Turtle - I have underlined my contributions to this article - all citations on this page were added by me. Citations did not transfer when I copied/pasted the original article in my sandbox to edit

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Florida box turtle (Terrapene carolina bauri )

The Florida box turtle (Terrapene carolina bauri ) is a subspecies of turtle belonging to the family Emydidae and is one of four subspecies of the Eastern Box Turtle (T. carolina).[1]

Etymology

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The subspecific name, bauri, is in honor of herpetologist Georg Baur.

Geographic Range

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Of the four subspecies of the Eastern Box Turtle, the Florida Box Turtle has the southernmost range. T. c. bauri is endemic to the U.S. state of Florida and the extreme southeastern portion of Georgia. Its distribution is widespread throughout Florida's mainland and has also been observed in the Florida Keys and the barrier islands in the Gulf of Mexico off of Florida's western coast. [1]

Habitat

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T. c. bauri can be found in damp environments, such as wetlands, marshlands, and near swamps, but usually does not enter water deep enough to swim.[2] It is often found in the flatwoods, upland, and mesophytic hammock but is generally absent in the high pine. [3] Within these habitats, juveniles prefer areas that contain dense cover, high amounts of leaf litter, and moist soil. Adults are more flexible in their habitat requirements and have been observed in more open areas. [4]

Temperature

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  • Daytime air temperature: 70 - 90 °F (21 - 32 °C)
  • Basking (link added) temperature: 85 - 95 °F (29 - 35 °C)
  • Humidity: (link added) 70 - 90%

Description

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Like other box turtles, the Florida box turtle has a narrow and highly domed shell with a hinged plastron that allows it to close its shell tightly. However, the Florida box turtle is different in appearance from the other subspecies of Terrapene carolina. Its carapace has a distinct pattern of bright radiating yellow stripes that make it easily identifiable. The coloring of the plastron can vary anywhere from solid yellow to solid black, with any number of variations in between. This turtle has very sharp claws as well as a sharp beak used for catching small insects and eating fruits, vegetables, and fungi. Males have red eyes, females have yellow eyes.[citation needed]

T. c. bauri exhibits significant sexual dimorphism. On average, males are larger (length and width) than females. The carapace length of females ranges from 12.1 - 15.8 cm while the average male carapace can be anywhere from 12.8 - 17.3 cm long. However, female carapaces tend to be taller than those of males. This is most likely to allow more space to accommodate eggs inside the body cavity. [5][6]

Behavior

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Like many other box turtle species, the Florida Box turtle spends an extreme majority of its life (80-90%) buried in the underbrush or underground, and their activity varies significantly at different times of the year. During the dry, cool times of the year (November - February), they enter a dormant stage and are inactive and difficult to find. They exhibit higher levels of activity during the warm, wet months (April - October). [5] However, unlike other species of box turtle, the Florida box turtle does not actually enter a complete state of hibernation during this time of year. This is most likely to the warm and stable temperatures throughout its Florida range. As a result, it exhibits longer annual activity than other box turtle species. [6] T. c. bauri is less tolerant to colder conditions than other T. carolina subspecies. [7]

Feeding
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The Florida box turtle is a generalist omnivore and has a diet very similar to other box turtle subspecies. Its most common food sources include gastropod species and fleshy, low-hanging fruits. They also consume leafy vegetation (shrubs, herb, grasses, etc.), insects, crustaceans, and fungi. They have even been observed feeding on carrion and garbage. [8][9][10]

Seed Dispersal
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The Florida box turtle contributes to the seed dispersal of various plants throughout its range. The vast majority of these plants contain fruit (Annona glabra, Brysonima lucida, Coccoloba uvifera, Cocothrinax argentata, Ficus sp., Morinda royoc, Manilkara zapoda, Psidium longipes, Serenoa repens, Smilax havenensis, Thrinax morrissii) while other may not (Paspalum spp., Fabaceae). [9]

Reproduction/Life Cycle

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T. c. bauri reaches sexual maturity around 12-13 years of age.[6] While some species are only able to produce one clutch in a breeding season, the Florida box turtle has been observed laying as many as four separate clutches in a single year. The egg laying season occurs in the Spring and generally lasts from April to very early June. On average, each clutch will contain anywhere from 1 - 9 eggs that range in size from 35 x 19 mm to 38.5 x 21 mm. Eggs of T.c. bauri tend to be slightly larger than those of other T. carolina subspecies.[7] Researchers have observed a positive relationship between female carapace length and clutch size, with larger females possessing the ability to produce more eggs. Incubation of the eggs lasts an average of 60 days but can last anywhere from 45 - 120 days. Different environmental factors may influence the reproductive success of the Florida box turtle. Years with higher levels of precipitation may positively influence reproductive success, resulting in a higher number of hatchlings when compared with drier years.[8][11] Research also points toward a positive correlation between latitude and clutch size in box turtles, with larger clutch sizes being found in higher latitudes.[12] The incubation temperature of a clutch has been observed to influence the sex ratio of the hatchlings. Warm incubation temperatures tend to produce more females, while cooler temperatures result in more males. [13]

Growth patterns in T. c. bauri are similar to other species of box turtles. Juvenile turtles have shorter and wider scutes and carapaces than adults, but these lengthen as the individual grows. Growth rates are rapid in juveniles, slow down significantly following sexual maturity, and eventually level off completely a few years later (around 16 and 17 years in females and males respectively). Despite having higher activity levels, the Florida box turtle has a slower annual growth rate than other box turtle species. [6]

Threats/Conservation

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Like other subspecies of T. carolina, the Florida box turtles is listed on the IUCN red list as a vulnerable species. Wild populations are at risk due to predation of eggs and juveniles (raccoons, possums, foxes, birds), habitat loss and modification, car strikes, pesticides, pollution, and collection for the pet trade and turtle racing.[14]

Wildfires
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Seasonal fire regimes in Florida represent a significant source of mortality for box turtles, with burns having the potential to kill off nearly half of a population. However, the mortality rate of turtles is lower during dry season burns as opposed to wet season burns. This is potentially due to the inactivity of t.c. bauri and its tendency to spend more time underground during the dry season. [15]

As Pets

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Florida box turtles can be kept as pets. They are omnivores and feed on a huge variety of food in the wild. In captivity (link added), they are especially fond of live food such as earthworms, crickets, locusts, snails, wax worms (as a treat because of their high fat content), superworms, and baby mice (links added). In addition to this large variety of live foods, you can offer chopped fruits and vegetables. Finely grated dark green veggies such as lettuces and kale, and fruits such as melons, berries, cantaloupe (links added), are also accepted (though not eagerly) once or twice a week.

By law, in their home State, no person may possess more than two of these turtles. People may be prosecuted by fine and removal of the animals if they own three or more without a reptile permit. This subspecies can only be found in Florida, and is also protected in many other areas. Many pet stores offer hatchlings as pets, which are usually healthier than the box turtles from the wild.[citation needed]


Drafting - Florida Softshell Turtle - I have underlined my contributions to this article - all citations on this page were added by me. Citations did not transfer when I copied/pasted the original article in my sandbox to edit

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The Florida softshell turtle (Apalone ferox) is a species of softshell turtle native to the Southeastern United States.

Geographic Range

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A. ferox is found primarily in the state of Florida, but it also ranges to southern sections of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, and Texas. It is the only species of softshell turtle whose range spans the entire Florida peninsula.[16]

Habitat Use

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A. ferox is a widespread species and occupies almost every freshwater habitat, even tolerating some brackish environments; however, it is not often found in water with strong currents, preferring habitats with slow-moving or still water. These different habitats include swamps, lakes, marshes, wet prairies, small rivers, creeks, and even ponds formed in man-made ditches or sinkholes. [17][18][19][20]

Physical Description

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Countershading in Florida softshell turtle (A. ferox)

The Florida softshell turtle typically has a dark brown to olive green, leathery carapace with a white or cream-colored underside, which visually conceals young turtles from potential predators. This color pattern is known as countershading and is a form of camouflage. (added picture -->) It has a long neck and an elongated head with a long snorkel-likenose. It is the largest softshell turtle in North America (link added) and one of the largest freshwater turtles (link added) there, as well (only the alligator snapping turtle averages considerably larger), reaching about 15 to 76 cm (5.9 to 29.9 in) in length. The female is larger, with the average male reaching only about 35 cm (14 in). The female can weigh up to 20 kg (44 lb), with the record weight documented at 43.6 kg (96 lb). Nesting (link added) adult females were found to average 6.65 kg (14.7 lb) in weight, and measure 40.1 cm (15.8 in) in carapace (link added) length and 30.1 cm (11.9 in) in plastron (link added) length. In comparison, 127 males were found to average 2.68 kg (5.9 lb) in weight and measure 22.75 cm (8.96 in) in plastron length. In comparison, the juvenile (link added) is olive-yellow with grey spots and yellow lines. Also, yellow and orange markings are found on the head and the plastron is gray. The markings disappear or fade as it ages

 
Juvenile coloration in Florida softshell turtle (A ferox.)

[REVISED SECTION] A. ferox is a large turtle with a flattened, pancake-like body, a long neck, an elongated head with a long snorkel-like nose, and large webbed feet, each with three claws. While most turtles have hard shells composed of scutes, the Florida softshell has a cartilaginous carapace covered in leathery skin. Ranging from olive green to dark brown, A. ferox has the darkest coloration of all the softshell species that inhabit Florida (other species include Apalone mutica calvata and Apalone spinifera aspera). It is also characterized by a white or cream-colored underside. [21][22] This color pattern is known as countershading and is a form of camouflage to conceal turtles from potential predators.[23] A. ferox is also the largest species of softshell turtle found in Florida and all of North America, ranging from 15 to 76 cm (5.9 to 29.9 in) in length. [21] The Florida softshell also exhibits significant sexual size dimorphism. Adults females are often 3-5x larger than males. Males have a carapace length and body weight averaging about 35 cm (14 in) and 2.68 kg (5.9 lb) respectively. Nesting adult females were found to average 6.65 kg (14.7 lb) in weight and measure 40.1 cm (15.8 in) in carapace length, with the record weight documented at 43.6 kg (96 lb). [24][25] However, males tend to have longer tails than their female counterparts (3 cm longer than a female of the same size). Hatchlings have a lighter carapace with yellow and orange markings and a carapacial rim. Stripes in the same color are also found on the face and neck. Their plastron is generally dark in color. As the turtle ages, these colors fade and are lost, resulting in the dark-brown coloration characteristic of adults. [21][22]

Behavior

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A. ferox is almost entirely aquatic (link added) only emerging from the water to bask (link added) or to lay eggs. It prefers the still waters of ponds, streams, lakes, and swamps (moved to habitat use section) In the water, it prefers to bury itself in the sandy/muddy substrate. Like all softshell turtles, it is very fast-moving in water and on land. [EDIT] While this species is omnivorous, its diet is largely composed of meat, consuming mainly fish, insects, crustaceans, frogs, and mollusks. It may also scavenge. (links added)

Reproduction

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Males
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The reproductive cycle of male Florida softshell turtles follows a postnuptial pattern, with a cycle of spring mating followed by spermatogenesis in the fall. The male will produce sperm during the fall and store that sperm in the epididymides through the winter. This stored sperm can then be utilized for copulation during the following spring mating season. Evidence suggests that they undergo spermatogenesis every year. Males of this species reach sexual maturity at small sizes (below 0.7 kg), allowing them to begin reproducing quickly following birth. This implies that some males may be able to reproduce as young as two years of age. [26]

Females
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While males consistently reach sexual maturity at small sizes, that size is larger and more variable in females. Some may reach maturity at a plastron length of 24 cm, and others may not mature until they reach a length closer to 30 cm. The onset of sexual maturity will occur anywhere from 5 - 8 years of age. The female nesting season can range anywhere from early April to early August, and incubation lasts an average of 60 - 90 days. In a study examining female reproduction in A. ferox, almost 10% of the females examined in a single breeding season showed signs of inactive ovaries, implying that, unlike males, females may not possess the ability to reproduce every year. Florida softshell females have the ability to produce an average of 4 - 5 egg clutches in a single breeding season, potentially producing a new clutch every three weeks. Florida softshell turtles have one of the highest annual egg production rates of any reptile. The study previously mentioned showed an average of over 20 eggs per clutch, with the largest clutch containing 38 eggs. [27][16]

Ecology

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With a primarily carnivorous diet, adult Florida softshell turtles function as major predators in their aquatic ecosystems. Sitting high on the trophic scale, they generally function as secondary or tertiary consumers. [28] However, alligators have been known to prey on the adults of A. ferox, and raptors may take juveniles. Nest predators include the fish crow, foxes, raccoons, skunks(links added), and river otters. [29] At various lakes across the state of Florida (Okeechobee, Apopka, Griffin, and Jesup) scientists have observed Florida softshell females, as well as other turtle species (Pseudemys nelsoni, Kinosternon sp, and Sternotherus odoratus) laying their eggs in American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis) nests during the summer months. While the turtles may utilize vacant nests more often, they have also been known to lay eggs in occupied alligator nests. They use these nests more often in areas with limited nesting habitats and/or during years with heavier precipitation when high water levels and flooding further reduce the number of suitable nesting sites. [30] Despite the Florida softshell's use of alligator nests, studies have shown the highest abundance of Florida softshell turtles to persist in lakes with little to no alligators as well as high primary productivity, suggesting a combination of top-down and bottom-up influences on softshell populations. [31]

Anthropogenic Threats

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The Florida softshell turtle is common throughout Florida and other parts of its range. However, wild populations are subject to various threats at the hands of humans. Some of these threats include commercial harvesting for meat, harvesting for the pet trade, and roadway mortalities. [32][33]

References

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  1. ^ a b Dodd, C. Kenneth (2001). North American Box Turtles: A Natural History. University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 9780806135014.
  2. ^ "Florida box turtle". Animal-World. Retrieved 2009-02-27.
  3. ^ Pamphlets on Biology :Kofoid collection.
  4. ^ Jennings, Alison Hamilton (2007). "USE OF HABITATS AND MICROENVIRONMENTS BY JUVENILE FLORIDA BOX TURTLES, TERRAPENE CAROLINA BAURI, ON EGMONT KEY". Herpetologica. 63 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1655/0018-0831(2007)63[1:uohamb]2.0.co;2. ISSN 0018-0831.
  5. ^ a b Verdon, Emilie; Donnelly, Maureen A. (2005). "Population Structure of Florida Box Turtles (Terrapene carolina bauri) at the Southernmost Limit of their Range". Journal of Herpetology. 39 (4): 572–577. doi:10.1670/131-04a.1. ISSN 0022-1511.
  6. ^ a b c d "Growth, allometry and sexual dimorphism in the Florida box turtle, Terrapene carolina bauri". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2018-11-12.
  7. ^ a b Ewing, H. E. (1937). "Notes on a Florida Box-Turtle, Terrapene bauri Taylor, Kept under Maryland Conditions". Copeia. 1937 (2): 141–141. doi:10.2307/1436959.
  8. ^ a b Pamphlets on Biology :Kofoid collection.
  9. ^ a b Liu, Hong; Platt, Steven G.; Borg, Christopher K. (2004-03-01). "Seed dispersal by the Florida box turtle ( Terrapene carolina bauri ) in pine rockland forests of the lower Florida Keys, United States". Oecologia. 138 (4): 539–546. doi:10.1007/s00442-003-1445-7. ISSN 0029-8549.
  10. ^ Platt, Steven G.; Hall, Clint; Liu, Hong; Borg, Christopher K. (2009). "Wet-season Food Habits and Intersexual Dietary Overlap of Florida Box Turtles (Terrapene Carolina Bauri) on National Key Deer Wildlife Refuge, Florida". Southeastern Naturalist. 8 (2): 335–346. doi:10.1656/058.008.0212. ISSN 1528-7092.
  11. ^ "(PDF) Clutch Size and Frequency in Florida Box Turtles (Terrapene carolina bauri): Implications for Conservation". ResearchGate. Retrieved 2018-11-11.
  12. ^ Iverson, John B.; Balgooyen, Christine P.; Byrd, Kathy K.; Lyddan, Kelly K. (1993). "Latitudinal variation in egg and clutch size in turtles". Canadian Journal of Zoology. 71 (12): 2448–2461. doi:10.1139/z93-341. ISSN 0008-4301.
  13. ^ Ewert, Michael A.; Nelson, Craig E. (1991). "Sex Determination in Turtles: Diverse Patterns and Some Possible Adaptive Values". Copeia. 1991 (1): 50–69. doi:10.2307/1446248.
  14. ^ "Terrapene carolina: van Dijk, P.P." IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2010-08-01. doi:10.2305/iucn.uk.2011-1.rlts.t21641a9303747.en. Retrieved 2018-11-12.
  15. ^ Roe, John H.; Wild, Kristoffer H.; Chavez, Maria S. (2019). "Responses of a forest-dwelling terrestrial turtle, Terrapene carolina, to prescribed fire in a Longleaf Pine ecosystem". Forest Ecology and Management. 432: 949–956. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2018.10.026. ISSN 0378-1127.
  16. ^ a b Meylan, P.A. and Moler, P.E. 2006. Apalone ferox - Florida Softshell Turtle. In: P.A. Meylan (ed.), Biology and Conservation of Florida Turtles, pp. 160-168. Chelonian Research Foundation, Lunenburg, MA.
  17. ^ DUELLMAN W.E., AND SCHWARTZ, A. 1958. Amphibians and reptiles of southern Florida. Bulletin of the Florida State Museum, Biological Sciences 3:181-324.
  18. ^ "A contribution to the herpetology of Florida by Archie Fairly Carr, Jr". ufdc.ufl.edu. Retrieved 2018-11-12.
  19. ^ WEBB, R.G. 1962. North American Recent soft-shelled turtles (Family Trionychidae). University of Kansas Publications of the Museum of Natural History13:429-611.
  20. ^ NEILL, W.T. 1958. The occurrence of amphibians and reptiles in saltwater areas, and a bibliography. Bulletin of Marine Science, Gulf and Caribbean 8:1-97.
  21. ^ a b c Apalone. www.tortoise.org
  22. ^ a b Meylan, P.A. and Moler, P.E. 2006. Apalone ferox - Florida Softshell Turtle. In: P.A. Meylan (ed.), Biology and Conservation of Florida Turtles, pp. 160-168. Chelonian Research Foundation, Lunenburg, MA.
  23. ^ "Heron tries to swallow turtle for dinner". Daily Telegraph. 18 Dec 2009.
  24. ^ Meylan, P.A.; Schuler, R.; Moler, P. (2002). "Spermatogenic cycle of the Florida softshell turtle, Apalone ferox ". Copeia 2002 (3): 779-786.
  25. ^ Iverson, J.B.; Moler, P.E. (1997). "The female reproductive cycle of the Florida softshell turtle (Apalone ferox)". Journal of Herpetology 31 (3): 399-409.
  26. ^ Meylan, Peter A.; Schuler, Rachel; Moler, Paul (2002). "Spermatogenic Cycle of the Florida Softshell Turtle, Apalone ferox". Copeia. 2002 (3): 779–786. doi:10.1643/0045-8511(2002)002[0779:scotfs]2.0.co;2. ISSN 0045-8511.
  27. ^ Iverson, J. B.; Moler, P. E. (1997). "The Female Reproductive Cycle of the Florida Softshell Turtle (Apalone ferox)". Journal of Herpetology. 31 (3): 399–409. doi:10.2307/1565669.
  28. ^ Aresco, M. J., and F. C. James. 2005. Ecological relationships of turtles in northern Florida lakes: a study of omnivory and the structure of a lake food web. Final report. Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, Tallahassee, Florida, USA.
  29. ^ Stacy, Brian A.; Wolf, Dan A.; Wellehan, James F. X. (2014). "Large-scale Predation by River Otters (Lontra canadensis) on Florida Cooter (Pseudemys floridana) and Florida Softshell Turtles (Apalone ferox)". Journal of Wildlife Diseases. 50 (4): 906–910. doi:10.7589/2013-10-271. ISSN 0090-3558.
  30. ^ Enge, Kevin M.; Percival, H. Franklin; Rice, Kenneth G.; Jennings, Michael L.; Masson, Gregory R.; Woodward, Allan R. (2000). "Summer Nesting of Turtles in Alligator Nests in Florida". Journal of Herpetology. 34 (4): 497–503. doi:10.2307/1565262.
  31. ^ Aresco, M. J. (2009). Environmental correlates of the abundances of three species of freshwater turtles in lakes of northern Florida. Copeia, 2009(3), 545-555.
  32. ^ ENGE, K.M. 1993. Herptile use and trade in Florida, Florida Game and Fresh Water Fish Comm. Nongame Wildlife Program Final Performance Report. 102 pp, Tallahassee, FL
  33. ^ Aresco, M. J. (2005). Mitigation measures to reduce highway mortality of turtles and other herpetofauna at a north Florida lake. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 69(2), 549-560.

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