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Classification

Panare is a member of the Cariban language family, though its sub-grouping within the family is a matter of contention. The first decades of attempted classifications were largely rejected by linguists, a uniform classification of all proposed members of the Cariban family was introduced by Terrence Kaufman (1994). This grouping, still widely used by linguists, classifies Panare as a member of the Southern Amazonian branch, with no cousin languages. However, Spike Gildea has criticized this grouping as relying on faulty data used for earlier classifications by Durbin and Loukotka that have been since rejected. In 2012, Gildea put forth his own classification, which groups Panare as a member of the Venezuelan Carib branch, and in turn, part of the low-level Pemóng-Panare branch. This classification has been considered an improvement by linguists such as Lyle Campbell and Doris & Thomas Payne, but it has yet to replace the Kaufman grouping, largely due to its relative youth.

Phonology

Consonants

Panare contains approximately 14 contrasting consonant phonemes, with variation depending on dialect and origins of certain lexical items (see: Notes).

	Labial	Alveolar	Alveo-palatal	Velar	Glottal
Plosives	p	t		k	ʔ
Nasals	m	n	ɲ	(ŋ)
Fricatives		s			h
Affricates			t͡ɕ
Glides	w		j
Flaps		ɾ

Vowels

Panare contains 7 contrasting vowel phonemes.

	Front	Central	Back
High	i	ɨ	u
Mid	e	ə	o
Low		a

Notes

/n/ = [ŋ]/_#, _C[-alveolar]/[n] elsewhere; /ɲ/ has phonemic status in loanwords from Spanish, and is an allophone in native words; Payne & Payne (2013) consider /ʔ/ and /h/ to be different allophones of an “underlying pharyngeal approximate,” that releases differently depending on environment. There are also records of these two phones occurring in free variation, which may be attributed to once-distinct dialects being merged into communities of speakers with idiolectical contrasts.

Morphology

Panare is best classified as a heavy-agglutinating language that verges on polysynthesis. Many of its morphemes can be clearly identified by roots that remain isolated across inflectional processes, and inflection by multiple affixes is usually light. Words can grow long and complicated, but they can usually be rooted in one firm idea, rather than something akin to a process-based sentence.

However, elements of polysynthesis appear in how roots are initially inflected. Essentially, most roots (that are not complements) are bound morphemes in some way, and require at least one inflectional morpheme until they can be used as units in a sentence. For example:

• '-uwaatï' roughly correlates to 'burn,' but is a bound morpheme
• 'yuwaatï' means, 'it’s going to burn.' 'Yuwaatïjtepe' means, 'it wants to burn.' They are both complete words.

Syntax

Panare sentence structure does not follow a strict word order, but a flexible one. In most studies, it is classified as an object-initial language. However, subject-object-verb and subject-verb-object are known to appear frequently as well. This kind of "object-initial tendency" is quite common in Amazonia, where sentence structure is often more consistently arranged through clause construction type than word order. As a result, Panare and its neighboring languages often use case markings as a way of ordering how constituents of a sentence affect each other.

Distribution

The speakers of Panare (called E'ñepa (lit. "people") in their own language) live in Bolívar, Venezuela, west of the Cuchivero basin of the Orinoco River. Up until the 21st Century, the Panare had few contacts with non-indigenous peoples (the few being explorers and anthropologists). However, increasing interactions with Venezuelans has led to widespread bilingualism with Spanish.

Bibliography

• Campbell, Lyle. 1997. American Indian Languages: the Historical Linguistics of Native America. New York: Oxford University Press.
• Campbell, Lyle. 2012. “Typological characteristics of South American indigenous languages.” In: Lyle Campbell, Verónica Grondona (eds.), The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide, 259-330: Berlin: Walter de Gruyter
• Crevels, Mily. 2012. "Language endangerment in South America: The clock is ticking." In: Lyle Campbell, Verónica Grondona (eds.), The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide, 167-234: Berlin: Walter de Gruyter
• Derbyshire, Desmond C. 1987. “Morphosyntactic Areal Characteristics of Amazonian Languages.” In: International Journal of American Linguistics Vol. 53(3): 311-326
• “E’ñapa Woromaipu.” Ethnologue. https://www.ethnologue.com/language/pbh/19 Accessed February, 2016
• Gildea, Spike. 1989. Simple and relative clauses in Panare, University of Oregon Master's Thesis
• Gildea, Spike. 2012. “Linguistic studies in the Cariban family.” In: Lyle Campbell, Verónica Grondona (eds.), The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide, 441-494: Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
• Payne, Thomas E., & Doris L. 2013. A Typological Grammar of Panare: A Cariban Language of Venezuela. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.