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User:Donald Trung/Zhiqian (制錢)

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This page serves as "the editing history" of the English Wikipedia article "Zhiqian" and is preserved for attribution and the historical record.

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[[File:1 Kuping Qián - Guangxu Tongbao (Guangdong Mint) - Scott Semans.png|thumb|right|A late 19th century machine-struck [[Guangxu Tongbao]] (光緒通寶) cash coin of 1 ''[[Chinese cash (currency unit)|wén]]'' with a standard weight of 1 Kuping Qian (庫平錢), which was nationally set standard weight for cash coins during the [[Guangxu Emperor|Guangxu]] era.]] '''Standard cash''' ({{zh |first=t | t=制錢 | s= 制钱 | hp= zhì qián| links=yes}}), or ''regulation cash coins'', is a term used during the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing dynasties]] of [[China]] to refer to standard issue [[copper-alloy]] [[Cash (Chinese coin)|cash coins]] produced in imperial Chinese mints according to weight and composition standards that were fixed by the imperial government.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian">{{cite web|url= http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/zhiqian.html|title= ''zhiqian'' 制錢, standard cash.|date=25 May 2016|accessdate=13 March 2020|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]].de|language=en}}</ref> The term was first used for [[Hongwu Tongbao]] cash coins following the abolition of large denomination versions of this cash coin series. == Terminology == {{See also|Cash (Chinese coin)#Other terms relating to cash coins}} The term "Zhiqian" was used in order to discern full-valued cash coins produced by the imperial government from [[Ancient Chinese coinage|older ones]] from the [[Song dynasty]] period, which were known as ''jiuqian'' (舊錢), and privately produced forgeries of non-standard weights and alloys that were referred to as ''siqian'' (私錢) or ''sizhuqian'' (私鑄錢).<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> Other terms used during the Ming dynasty for various types of cash coins include ''yangqian'' (样錢, "Model coin"), also known as ''Beiqian'' (北錢, "Northern coin"), which refered to full weight (1 ''qián'') and fine quality cash coins had were delivered to [[Beijing]] as seigniorage revenue.{{sfn|Hartill|2005|p=237}} ''Fengqian'' (俸錢, "Stipend coin") which referred to second rate cash coins that had a weight of 0.9 ''qián'' and were distributed through the salaries of government officials and emoluments.{{sfn|Hartill|2005|p=237}} and ''Shangqian'' (賞錢, "Tip money") which is a term used to refer to cash coins that were small, thin, and very fragile (comparable to ''Sizhuqian'') that were used to pay the wages of employees of the imperial government (including the mint workers themselves) and was one of the most commonly circulating types of cash coins during the Ming dynasty among the general population.{{sfn|Hartill|2005|p=237}} == Design == The design of the standard Chinese cash coin was round, while it had a square centre hole that allowed them to be [[String of cash coins (currency unit)|strung together]].<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> There inner rim as well as the outer rim of the cash coin was slightly elevated, and on the obverse side of the coin was the [[Chinese era name|era name (or reign motto)]] of the reigning [[Emperor of China|emperor]], while during the Ming dynasty the reverse side of their cash coins tended to be blank, while [[Qing dynasty coinage|Qing dynasty period cash coins]] often contained [[mint mark]]s.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> == Ming dynasty == {{Main|Ming dynasty coinage}} [[File:Chong Zhen Tong Bao (崇禎通寶) - 1628-1644 Zhen angled variety, Tong 1-dot, Bao bei closed, Zhen L short angled dot above, bei open. - Scott Semans 01.jpg|thumb|left|Various [[Chongzhen Tongbao]] (崇禎通寶) Zhiqian.]] In the year 1361 the [[Ming dynasty]] established its first imperial mint [[Baoyuanju]] (寶源局) in the capital city of [[Nanjing|Yingtian]], by [[Zhu Yuanzhang]] who at the time ruled under the title of "Prince of Wu" and created the mint before the [[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] [[Yuan dynasty]] was driven out of China, the first cash coins produced by the Baoyuanju had the inscription [[Dazhong Tongbao]] (大中通寶), these new cash coins continued circulating next to older cash coins.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> Following the Ming conquest of all of China the Ming government started establishing provincial mints, known as [[Baoquanju]] (寶泉局), these new cash coins had the inscription [[Hongwu Tongbao]] (洪武通寶).<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> The government of the Ming dynasty then made the private production of cash coins illegal.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> These early Hongwu Tongbao cash coins were issued in multiple denominations, however, after only four years the denominations larger than 1 ''[[Chinese cash (currency unit)|wén]]'' and the Dazhong Tongbao were abolished.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> The government of the Ming dynasty attempted to collect all older cash coins and to recast them into 1 ''wén'' coins with a weight of 1 ''[[Cash (unit)|qián]]'' (which is about 3.7 grams in the [[metric system]]).<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> While standard 1 ''wén'' cash coins with the inscriptions [[Yongle Tongbao]] (永樂通寶), [[Xuande Tongbao]] (宣德通寶), and [[Hongzhi Tongbao]] (弘治通寶) were produced,{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=247}} the government of the Ming dynasty had a preference for making and receiving payments in [[Da-Ming Baochao]] paper notes and [[Zhuangpiao|privately-issued banknotes]].<ref name="PrimaltrekMingDynastyCashCoins">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/chinesecoins.html#ming_dynasty|title= Chinese coins – 中國錢幣 |date=16 November 2016|accessdate=14 March 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref><ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> The composition of the Yongle Tongbao was generally 63-90% [[copper]] (Cu), 10-25% [[lead]] (Pb), 6-9% [[tin]] (Sn), and 0.04-0.18 % [[zinc]] (Zn).<ref name="PrimaltrekAdmiralZhengHeYongleTongbao">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2013/03/31/admiral-zheng-he-and-the-yongle-tongbao-coin/|title= Admiral Zheng He and the Yongle Tongbao Coin.|date=31 March 2013|accessdate=14 March 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref><ref>“An Investigation of the Using of Brass in Casting Coins in Ancient China” (我国古代黄铜铸钱考略) included in “A Collection of Chinese Numismatic Theses” (中国钱币论文集) published in 1992.</ref> The Yongle Tongbao cash coins were notably not manufactured for the [[Economy of the Ming dynasty|internal Chinese market]] where silver coinage and paper money would continue to dominate, but were in fact produced to help stimulate [[international trade]] as Chinese cash coins were used as a common form of currency throughout [[South Asia|South]], [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]], and [[East Asia]].<ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/six-centuries-ago-chinese-explorers-left-this-coin-behind-in-africa-2810588/#x9gfZZ2HZUYEvvQf.99|title= Six Centuries Ago, Chinese Explorers Left This Coin Behind in Africa - Emperor Yongle was perhaps best known for starting the initial construction of Beijing’s Forbidden City, but he also sent huge fleets of ships, under the command of admiral Zheng He, out across the ocean to faraway lands.|date=15 March 2013|accessdate=31 July 2018|work= by Rachel Nuwer ([[Smithsonian magazine|SmartNews - Keeping you current]]).|language=en}}</ref><ref name="bbc10">{{cite news| url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11531398| publisher= [[BBC News]] | title= Could a rusty coin re-write Chinese-African history? | date= 17 October 2010 | accessdate= 30 July 2018}}</ref><ref name="PrimaltrekAdmiralZhengHeYongleTongbao"/> In the year 1433, due to the devaluation of the Da-Ming Baochao banknotes, the government of the Ming dynasty resumed the casting of cash coins again.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=247}} The casting of these new Xuande Tongbao cash coins was divided between the two [[Ministry of Works (imperial China)|Ministry of Public Works]] mints in both capital cities.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=247}} Furthermore, Xuande Tongbao cash coins were also produced at the branch mints in [[Zhejiang]], [[Jiangxi]], [[Fujian]], and [[Guangdong]].{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=247}} The official production of cash coins ceased once again for seven decades in 1435 and the private production of copper-alloy cash coins would once again become commonplace.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=247}} Despite the government preferring [[paper money]] over copper-alloy cash coins, the Chinese market had a high [[Demand (economics)|demand]] for them, this demand would stimulate an overproduction of forgeries that inundated the markets of Ming China, often these forged cash coins were cast in such miserable quality that a signle real Zhiqian could buy 300 fake ones.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> Consequently, this caused [[inflation]] in many different places.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> In the year 1503 under the [[Hongzhi Emperor]] the production of cash coins was resumed and the Zhiqian were given a standard weight of 1.2 ''qián'', the government stipulated that for each [[catty]] of pure copper two taels of ''haoyin'' (好鍚, "superior tin") was to be added to the alloy of these coins.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=247}} As the government of the Ming dynasty had closed its coin mints for such a long period of time, the government was forced to pardon illegal producers and hire them as mint workers.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=247}} Under the reign of the [[Jiajing Emperor]] the government of the Ming dynasty would alleviate the situation by producing a large amount of Zhiqian with the inscription [[Jiajing Tongbao]] (嘉靖通寶) in the year Jiajing 5 (1527).<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> In the year Jiajing 11 (1553) the government of the Ming dynasty cast 10,000,000 additional Jiajing Tongbao cash coins and allegedly as well as Zhiqian with 9 earlier reign era names,<ref name="CalgaryCoinMingDynasty">{{cite web|url= http://calgarycoin.com/reference/china/china7.htm|title= MEDIEVAL CHINESE COINS - TARTAR, MONGOL, MING DYNASTIES - (A.D. 960 to 1644) - MING DYNASTY.|date=1997|accessdate=14 March 2020|author= Robert Kokotailo|publisher= Calgary Coin & Antique Shop|language=en}}</ref> a total amount of 1,000,000 ''dìng'' (錠).{{Efn|1 ''dìng'' (錠) is equal to 5,000 cash coins (文).}}<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> Because of the possibility that under the Jiajing Emperor cash coins were produced with earlier reign titles the attribution of some earlier cash coins is still disputed among modern scholars.<ref name="CalgaryCoinMingDynasty"/> However, Schjöth noted that the proposal to also cast 95,000,000 strings of these 9 earlier reign titles might not have actually been adopted and that these cash coins were local and [[Japan]]ese forgeries.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=249}} The standard weight of Jiajing Tongbao was 1.2 ''qián''.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=248}} In the year 1570 during the reign of the [[Longqing Emperor]] cash coins with a weight of 1.3 ''qián'' were once again cast until the death of the emperor in 1572.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=249}} In the spring of the year 1572 the government of the Ming dynasty once again resumed the production of standard cash coins at the Beijing and Nanjing mints.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=249}} It did not take long for the mints to be opened in [[Yunnan]], [[Shanxi]], [[Shandong]], [[Henan]], [[Shaanxi]], Jiangxi, Fujian, and [[Huguang]], these Zhiqian all weighed 1.3 ''qián''.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=249}} The alloy of the [[Wanli Tongbao]] (萬曆通寶) cash coins was set at 93.8% [[brass]] and 6.2% [[tin]].{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=249}} The rising price of copper, lack of skilled mint workers, and poor distribution from the government mints all contributed to the failure of the Wanli Tongbao cash coins by the year 1579.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=249}} The first provincial mint to close was that of Yunnan in the year 1580 which was quickly followed by most provincial mints in 1582.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=249}} The only successful provincial mints were of Huguang, where three different local mints cast their own cash coins that did not conform to the Zhiqian standards.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=249}} In the year 1599 the Wanli administration made another attempt at the restoration of cash coinage, during this attempt the Ministry of Public Works opened up a second mint in the city of Nanjing, this increased the number of furnaces from 60 to 250.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=249}} Proposals for the Nanjing [[Ministry of Revenue (imperial China)|Ministry of Revenue]] and River Transport Intendancy to establish new mints in the city were also accepted.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=249}} The [[Ever Normal Granary]] mint was established during this period with 250 furnaces.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=249}} The city of Nanjing was quickly awash with a glut of coinage, which caused the production of cash coins in the year 1606 to be scaled back to an annual production of 15,000 strings with some government mints being closed.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=249}} In the early [[17th century]] an increase in the price of copper caused the government to reduce the amount of copper in the composition of the Zhiqian in favour of [[lead]].<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> Cash coins with the inscriptions [[Tianqi Tongbao]] (天啟通寶) and [[Chongzhen Tongbao]] (崇禎通寶) were of poorer quality than those producing during preceding periods, these cash coins tended to be both thin and bristle, due to the lowered amount of copper in their compositions.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> Chinese people at this point started to refrain from using copper-alloy cash coins and the markets preferred the usage of [[Sycee|silver ingots]] instead.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> In the year 1622 the [[Ministry of Revenue (imperial China)|Ministry of Revenue]] established its own mint in Beijing, this was done to help finance the continued rising cost of fighting the [[Manchu people|Manchu]] invasions.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=252}} The Ministry of Revenue also established a number of branch mints in Nanjing, but the rivalry between the Ministry of Revenue and the Ministry of Public Works prevented the Ming dynasty from adopting an effective monetary policy.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=252}} By the year 1623 there were five different concurrent government mints operating in the city of Nanjing, two of which were run by the Ministry of Public Works, two by the Ministry of Revenue, and one by the Nanjing municipal government.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=252}} The melting down of copper artifacts which were of great historical and religious significance upset a number [[Conservatism|Conservative]] government officials, which further added to the already ad reputation of the Tianqi Tongbao cash coins.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=253}} Some Chongzhen Tongbao cash coins were produced with the denomination 2 ''wén'' and Chongzhen Tongbao cash coins produced by the Ministry of Public Work mint had the mint mark "工" (Gong) inscribed to its reverse.<ref name="PrimaltrekMingDynastyCashCoins"/> The standard Chongzhen Tongbao cash coins initially weighed 1.3 ''qián'', but by 1630 cash coins produced in the north had a weight of 1 ''qián'' and those in the south at most 8 ''fēn''.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=256}} == Qing dynasty == {{Main|Qing dynasty coinage}} [[File:Shunzhi Tongbao. Chinese. Yi Li. Yun.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Shunzhi Tongbao]] (順治通寶) standard cash coin with an official silver exchange rate set at the value of 1 [[Cash (unit)|cash]] (weight) in silver.]] Prior to the [[Manchu conquest of China]], the [[Later Jin (1616–1636)|Later Jin dynasty]] already produced [[Qing dynasty coinage#Later Jin dynasty coinage (1616–1636)|its own cash coins]] with the inscriptions Abkai fulingga han jiha ({{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᠠᠪᡴᠠᡳ<br>ᡶᡠᠯᡳᠩᡤᠠ<br>ᡥᠠᠨ<br>ᠵᡳᡴᠠ}}),<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney">{{cite web|url= http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/cash-qing.html|title= Qing Period Money.|date=13 April 2016|accessdate=14 March 2020|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]].de|language=en}}</ref> Tianming Tongbao (天命通寶),<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> and Sure han ni jiha ({{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᠰᡠᡵᡝ<br>ᡥᠠᠨ<br>ᠨᡳ<br>ᠵᡳᡴᠠ}}).<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/> During the [[Qing dynasty]] period, the Chinese monetary system was a [[Bimetallism|bimetallic]] system where both copper-alloy cash coins and silver circulated simultaneously.<ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan">{{cite web|url= http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/3307/1/Yan_In_Search_of_Power.pdf|title= In Search of Power and Credibility - Essays on Chinese Monetary History (1851-1845).|date=March 2015|accessdate=8 February 2020|author= Xun Yan|publisher= Department of Economic History, [[London School of Economics|London School of Economics and Political Science]]||language=en}}</ref> The copper-alloy currency during most of the Qing dynasty period consisted solely of cash coins with a denomination of 1 ''wén'', which could be strung together into [[String of cash coins (currency unit)|strings of 1,000 cash coins]] for larger payments.<ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan"/> While strings officially consisted of 1,000 cash coins, normally it would contain only around 980 copper-alloy cash coins.<ref>Kuroda, "The Collapse of the Chinese Imperial Monetary System". Page = 103.</ref><ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan"/> Because all copper-alloy cash coins of the Qing dynasty had both uniform shapes and weights, the denomination of the cash coins were not written down anywhere on the coins themselves, this was because for most of their history, a cash coin was always valued at 1 ''wén'' and payments were processed by counting the number of cash coins.<ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan"/> The government of the Qing dynasty monopolised the production of copper-alloy cash coins, which constituted less than 20% of the total money circulating in China at the time, as well as the mining of copper, while the government allowed for the market to determine the price of silver.<ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan"/> Following capture of [[Beijing]] by the [[Manchu people|Manchus]] from the [[Shun dynasty]] in the year 1644, the government of the [[Qing dynasty]] established two imperial mints, one under the jurisdiction of the [[Ministry of Revenue (imperial China)|Ministry of Revenue]] and one under the jurisdiction of the [[Ministry of Works (imperial China)|Ministry of Public Works]].<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> The standard cash coins produced at the Ministry of Revenue mint would later bear the [[Manchu language|Manchu]] [[mint mark]] "{{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᠪᠣᠣ<br>ᠴᡳᠣᠸᠠᠨ}}" (Boo Ciowan) and those cast at the Ministry of Public Works mint would have the Manchu mint mark "{{ManchuSibeUnicode|ᠪᠣᠣ<br>ᠶᡠᠸᠠᠨ}}" (Boo Yuwan).<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> The Qing government then further stipulated that every province should establish their own provincial mint for the production of copper-alloy cash coins.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> Standard copper-alloy cash coins were cast by using models, known as ''fanzhu'' (笵鑄), in these state-operated mints, of which there were two in the city of Beijing, and one in almost each provincial capital city.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/> Zhiqian were to be produced in casting rounds, known as ''mǎo'' (卯), these casting rounds had a predefined number of cash coins to be produced, copying the imperial standard with their exact standardised dimensions and metallic compositions.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> The obverse side of the standard cash coin would always contain the current reign era name with "Tongbao" (通寶) inscribed on it.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> The initial alloy was fixed at 70% copper, known as ''hongtong'' (紅銅) and 30% of zinc, known as ''baiqian'' (白鉛).<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/> The two imperial mints in Beijing were the only places where official standard cash coins were manufactured during the early years of the Qing dynasty period.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/> The later official alloy was altered to 60% copper and 40% [[zinc]] and/or lead, but the actual compositions would ''[[de facto]]'' be determined by the private market, causing the government of the Qing dynasty to alter the official copper-alloy of the Zhiqian over time.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> During the Shunzhi period another type of Zhiqian known as the ''Yiliqian'' (一厘錢, "one-[[Cash (unit)|cash]] coin"), referred to as ''Zheyinqian'' (折銀錢, "conversion coins") by Chinese numismatists,{{Efn|Chinese numismatists use the term "conversion coins" because of their official fixed value compared with silver.}} was cast, this term was used to designate Shunzhi Tongbao cash coins produced from the year 1653 that had the inscription "一厘" on the left to the square centre hole on their reverse sides, this inscription indicates that the nominal value of the cash coin corresponded to 0.001 tael of silver (1 li (釐 or 厘, "cash"), as a weight).<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/> This would mean that the official government conversation rate was set as ''zhé yín yì lí qián'' (折銀一厘錢), which was proof that silver was of continuing importance as a currency of account.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/> Similar cash coins with this reverse inscription were also being produced by some rulers of the [[Southern Ming]] dynasty.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/> Until the [[Kangxi Tongbao]] (康熙通寶) the official composition of the Zhiqian remained at 60% copper and 40% zinc and/or lead, the [[Yongzheng Tongbao]] (雍正通寶) cash coins had a composition of 50% copper and 50% zinc and/or lead, and the [[Qianlong Tongbao]] (乾隆通寶) had an additional 2% [[tin]] added to their official alloy.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> The Zhiqian that contained tin were referred to as Qingqian (青錢, "green cash").<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> The actual weight of the standard cash coin would also vary over time, this official weight was usually between 1 ''[[Cash (unit)|qián]]'' (c. 3.7g) and 1.4 ''qián''.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> In the year 1645 the standard weight was altered to 1.2 ''qián'', in 1651 this was further changed to 1.25 ''qián'', and in the year 1657 to 1.4 ''qián''.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/> After the year 1733 it was officially fixed to be at 1.2 ''qián''.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/> The official exchange rate between Zhiqian and [[silver]] in the year 1644 was inherited from the mid-Ming period and stood at 7 standard cash coins per 0.01 [[tael]], or 1 ''fēn'' (分), of silver, while old Ming dynasty period cash coins were traded at a rate of 14 cash coins per 1 ''fēn'' of silver.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/> In the year 1645 the official exchange rate was fixed at 10 standard cash coins per ''fēn'' of silver.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/> During the reign of the [[Xianfeng Emperor]] the government of the Qing dynasty introduced a number of currency reforms that re-introduced multiple denominations, these large denomination cash coins were referred to as [[Daqian]] ("big cash").<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/><ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan"/> These cash coins were produced until the year 1890 and the standard 1 ''wén'' cash coin would become the norm again until the [[Xinhai Revolution|fall of the Qing dynasty]] in 1911.<ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan"/> Xianfeng era Zhiqian (or 1 ''wén'' cash coins) were cast of copper, iron, and zinc.<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/> All Xianfeng era Zhiqian had the obverse inscription [[Xianfeng Tongbao]] (咸豐通寶).<ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/> During the [[Tongzhi Emperor|Tongzhi]] era the weight of the Zhiqian remained at 1.2 ''qián'', but due to the depletion of copper in Yunnan and the high import costs of [[Japan]]ese copper provincial mints would often reduce the weights.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=4394}} In the year 1867 the imperial government issued an unsuccessful edit for all central and eastern provincial mints to cast Zhiqian with a weight of 1 ''qián'' to be transported to [[Tianjin]] to help alleviate copper shortages in Beijing.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=4394}} The Zhiqian of 1890 was officially given a weight of 1 ''qián'' to be cast by both the imperial mints in Beijing and provincial mints.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=405}} In the year 1899 the weight of the Zhiqian was reduced to only 8 ''fēn''.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=405}} [[Peng Xinwei]] estimated that during the late Qing dynasty period, the total copper sector (copper coins including standard cash and the new [[Da-Qing Tongbi]] minted after the year 1900) constituted only 17% of the total money in circulation in China.<ref>[[Peng Xinwei]], A Monetary History of China, page 595.</ref><ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan"/> The standard [[Xuantong Tongbao]] (宣統通寶) cash coins produced at the Ministry of Revenue mint between the years 1909 and 1910 had a weight of 6 ''fēn'' and were both cast and machine-struck.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=424}} == Banknotes denominated in Zhiqian == <gallery> Image:500 Wén - Ch'ing Dynasty Copper Cash-Note - John E. Sandrock.jpg|A [[Da-Qing Baochao]] (大清寶鈔) banknote of 500 ''[[Chinese cash (currency unit)|wén]]'' denominated in Zhiqian. Image:河南省 1000 Cash - Provincial Bank of Honan (1904) 01.jpg|A 1904 banknote of 1000 ''wén'' issued by the [[Provincial Bank of Honan]]. Image:湖北省 1 Chuàn - Hupeh Government Cash Bank (1908) 01.png|A 1908 banknote of 1 ''[[String of cash coins (currency unit)|chuàn]]'' of Zhiqian issued by the [[Hupeh Government Cash Bank]]. Image:2000 Cash (貳千文) - I Li Official Currency Bureau (伊犁官錢總局) issue 宣統元年（1909年）RMB 345,000 - KKNews - Obverse.jpg|A 1909 (宣統元年) banknote of 2000 ''wén'' in Zhiqian issued by the [[Ili Official Currency Bureau]] for circulation in [[Yining]], [[Xinjiang under Qing rule|Xinjiang]]. </gallery> == Notes == {{Notelist}} == References == {{Reflist}} == Sources == * Cong Hanxiang (從翰香) and Xie Hangsheng (謝杭生) (1992). "Zhiqian (制錢)", in Zhongguo da baike quanshu (中國大百科全書), Zhongguo lishi (中國歷史) ([[Beijing]]/[[Shanghai]]: Zhongguo da baike quanshu chubanshe), Vol. 3, 1535. (in [[Mandarin Chinese]]). * Hartill, David (September 22, 2005). ''Cast Chinese Coins''. [[Trafford]], [[United Kingdom]]: Trafford Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1412054669}}. * Hartill, David, ''Qing cash'', [[Royal Numismatic Society]] Special Publication 37, [[London]], 2003. * [[Peng Xinwei]] (彭信威) (1954 [2007]). ''Zhongguo huobi shi'' (中國貨幣史) ([[Shanghai]]: Qunlian chubanshe), 580-581, 597-605. (in [[Mandarin Chinese]]). * Peng Xinwei (彭信威) (1994) ''A monetary history of China'' (translated by Edward H. Kaplan). [[Western Washington University]] ([[Bellingham, Washington|Bellingham]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]]). {{Commons category|Zhiqian (currency)}} {{Chinese cash coin}} {{Chinese currency and coinage}} [[:Category:Coins of China]] [[:Category:Cash coins]] [[:Category:Qing dynasty]] [[:Category:Ming dynasty]] [[:Category:Chinese numismatics]] .

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March 2020.
  • <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= March 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
February 2020.
  • <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= February 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
January 2020.
  • <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= January 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
December 2019.
  • <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2019|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= December 2019|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

To use

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  • <ref name="HoreshQing">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-981-10-0622-7_54-1|title= The Monetary System of China under the Qing Dynasty.|date=28 September 2018|accessdate=29 July 2019|author= [[Niv Horesh]]|publisher= [[Springer Nature|Springer Link]]|language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="HoreshQing"/>
  • <ref name="PrimalQing">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/chinesecoins.html#qing_dynasty_coins|title= Chinese coins – 中國錢幣 - Qing (Ch'ing) Dynasty (1644-1911)|date=16 November 2016|accessdate=30 June 2017|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="PrimalQing"/>
  • <ref name="PrimaltrekKingOfQingDynastyCoins">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2013/01/08/the-king-of-qing-dynasty-coins/|title=The King of Qing Dynasty Coins.|date=8 January 2013|accessdate=8 January 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="PrimaltrekKingOfQingDynastyCoins"/>
  • <ref name="CambridgeInflation">{{cite web|url= https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/hsienfeng-inflation/54A8F1ADDC871CC18F4DCFA828730DEB|title= The Hsien-Fêng Inflation (Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 December 2009).|date=October 1958|accessdate=28 July 2019|author= Jerome Ch'ên|publisher= [[SOAS University of London]]|language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="CambridgeInflation"/>
  • <ref name="Brill2015">[https://www.academia.edu/28400259/_Silver_Copper_Rice_and_Debt_Monetary_Policy_and_Office_Selling_in_China_during_the_Taiping_Rebellion_in_Money_in_Asia_1200_1900_Small_Currencies_in_Social_and_Political_Contexts_ed._by_Jane_Kate_Leonard_and_Ulrich_Theobald_Leiden_Brill_2015_343-395 “Silver, Copper, Rice, and Debt: Monetary Policy and Office Selling in China during the Taiping Rebellion,” in Money in Asia (1200–1900): Small Currencies in Social and Political Contexts, ed.] by Jane Kate Leonard and Ulrich Theobald, [[Leiden]]: Brill, 2015, 343-395.</ref>
    • <ref name="Brill2015"/>
  • <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsDebinMa">{{cite web|url= http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/41940/1/WP159.pdf|title= Money and Monetary System in China in the 19th-20th Century: An Overview. (Working Papers No. 159/12)|date=January 2012|accessdate=26 January 2020|author= Debin Ma|publisher= Department of Economic History, [[London School of Economics]]|language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsDebinMa"/>
  • <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan">{{cite web|url= http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/3307/1/Yan_In_Search_of_Power.pdf|title= In Search of Power and Credibility - Essays on Chinese Monetary History (1851-1845).|date=March 2015|accessdate=8 February 2020|author= Xun Yan|publisher= Department of Economic History, [[London School of Economics|London School of Economics and Political Science]]||language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan"/>

More sources

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  • <ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian">{{cite web|url= http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/zhiqian.html|title= ''zhiqian'' 制錢, standard cash.|date=25 May 2016|accessdate=13 March 2020|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]].de|language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="ChinaKnowledgeZhiqian"/>
  • <ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney">{{cite web|url= http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/cash-qing.html|title= Qing Period Money.|date=13 April 2016|accessdate=14 March 2020|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]].de|language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="ChinaKnowledgeQingPeriodMoney"/>
  • <ref name="CalgaryCoinMingDynasty">{{cite web|url= http://calgarycoin.com/reference/china/china7.htm|title= MEDIEVAL CHINESE COINS - TARTAR, MONGOL, MING DYNASTIES - (A.D. 960 to 1644) - MING DYNASTY.|date=1997|accessdate=14 March 2020|author= Robert Kokotailo|publisher= Calgary Coin & Antique Shop|language=en}}</ref>
    • <ref name="CalgaryCoinMingDynasty"/>

Possibly useful sources

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Spin-off projects

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Redirects

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  • #REDIRECT [[Zhiqian]]
  1. Zhi qian.
  2. Zhi Qian.
  3. Standard cash.
  4. Standard cash coin.
  5. Standard cash coins.
  6. Chinese Standard cash.
  7. Chinese Standard cash coin.
  8. Chinese Standard cash coins.
  9. 制钱.
  10. 制錢.
  11. Zhì qián.
  12. Zhìqián.
  13. Zhi-qian.
  14. Zhi-Qian.
  15. Regulation cash.
  16. Regulation cash coin.
  17. Regulation cash coins.
  18. Chinese Regulation cash.
  19. Chinese Regulation cash coin.
  20. Chinese Regulation cash coins.
  21. Chinese standard cash.
  22. Chinese standard cash coin.
  23. Chinese standard cash coins.
  24. Chinese regulation cash.
  25. Chinese regulation cash coin.
  26. Chinese regulation cash coins.

Wikidata item

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