History
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The earliest evidence for elements of Hinduism date back to the late neolithic to the early Harappan period (5500–2600 BCE).[1] The beliefs and practices of the pre-classical era (1500–500 BCE) are called the "historical Vedic religion". Modern Hinduism grew out of the Vedas, the oldest of which is is the Rigveda, dated to 1700–1100 BCE.[2] The Vedas center on worship of deities such as Indra, Varuna and Agni, and on the Soma ritual. They performed fire-sacrifices, called yajña and chanted Vedic mantras but did not build temples or icons. The oldest Vedic traditions exhibit strong similarities to Zoroastrianism and with other Indo-European religions.[3] During the Epic and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata were written roughly from 500–100 BCE,[4] although these were orally transmitted for centuries prior to this period.[5] The epics contain mythological stories about the rulers and wars of ancient India, and are interspersed with philosophical treatises. The later Puranas recount tales about devas and devis, their interactions with humans and their battles against demons.
Three key events underpinned the nascence of a new epoch in Hindu thought. These were the Upanishads, Mahavira (founder of Jainism) and the Buddha (founder of Buddhism).[6] The Upanishads, Mahavira and Buddha taught that to achieve moksha or nirvana, one did not have to accept the authority of the Vedas or the caste system; [citation needed] Buddha went a step further and claimed that the existence of a Self/soul or God was unnecessary.[7] Buddhism and Jainism adapted elements of Hinduism into their beliefs. Buddhism (or at least Buddhistic Hinduism) peaked during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. After 200 CE, several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.[8] Charvaka, the founder of an atheistic materialist school, came to the fore in North India in the sixth century BCE.[9] Between 400 and 1000 CE, Hinduism expanded at the expense of Buddhism.[10]
Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders, it started to become a major religion during the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent.[9] During this period Buddhism declined rapidly while many Hindus converted to Islam. Some Muslim rulers such as Aurangzeb destroyed Hindu temples and persecuted non-Muslims, while others, such as Akbar, were more tolerant. Hinduism underwent profound changes in large part due to the influence of the prominent teachers Ramanuja, Madhva, and Chaitanya.[9] Followers of the Bhakti movement moved away from the abstract concept of Brahman, which the philosopher Adi Shankara consolidated a few centuries before, with emotional, passionate devotion towards the more accessible avataras, especially Krishna and Rama.[9][11]
Indology as an academic discipline of studying Indian culture from a European perspective was established in the 19th century, led by Max Müller and John Woodroffe. They brought Vedic, Puranic and Tantric literature and philosophy to Europe and the United States. At the same time, societies such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society attempted to reconcile and fuse Abrahamic and Dharmic philosophies, endeavouring to institute societal reform. This period also saw the emergence of movements which, while sometimes highly innovative, were rooted in indigenous tradition. They were sometimes based on the personalities and teachings of individuals, as with Shri Ramakrishna and Ramana Maharshi. Prominent Hindu philosophers, including Sri Aurobindo and Swami Prabhupada (founder of ISKCON) translated, reformulated and presented Hinduism's foundational texts for contemporary audiences in new iterations, attracting followers and attention in India and abroad. Others such as Swami Vivekananda, Paramahansa Yogananda, B.K.S. Iyengar and Swami Rama have been instrumental in raising the profiles of traditional Yoga and Vedanta in the West.
Citations
edit- ^ "Hindu History" The BBC names a bath and phallic symbols of the Harappan civilization as features of the "Prehistoric religion (3000-1000 BCE)".
- ^ T. Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100.
- ^ The Ṛgvedic deity Dyaus, regarded as the father of the other deities, is linguistically cognate with Zeus—the king of the gods in Greek mythology, Iovis (gen. of Jupiter) —the king of the gods in Roman mythology, and Tiu/Ziu in Germanic mythology[1], cf. English 'Tues-day'. Other Vedic deities also have cognates with those found in other Indo-European speaking peoples' mythologies; see Proto-Indo-European religion.
- ^ Goldman 2007, p. 23.
- ^ Rinehart 2004, p. 28.
- ^ Olivelle, Patrick, "The renouncer tradition", pp. 273-274; in "Blackwell companion to Hinduism", Ed. Flood,Gavin, Blackwell Publ., 2003. ISBN 0-631-21535-2
- ^ Sir Charles Eliot, Hinduism and Buddhism, Vol. I (London 1954)
- ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi.
- ^ a b c d A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0-19-563921-9
- ^ "The rise of Jainism and Buddhism". Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences. BBC. 26 July 2004. Retrieved 2007-04-21.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ J.T.F. Jordens, “Medieval Hindu Devotionalism,” in A.L. Basham, Ed., A Cultural History of India (Oxford 1999) ISBN 0-19-563921-9
References
edit- Goldman, RP (2007), The Ramayana of Valmiki: An Epic of Ancient India, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-06663-9
- Oberlies, T (1998), Die Religion des Rgveda, Wien
- Radhakrishnan, S; Moore, CA (1967), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-01958-4
- Rinehart, R (2004), Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice, ABC-Clio, ISBN 1-57607-905-8