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The Belgians in Central Africa

The trilogy The Belgians in Central Africa offers a large collection of scientific, anthropological, historical and political descriptions of the Congo. More specifically it recounts the Belgian colonization and exploration of a newly created country: The Free State of Congo. (see Belgian Congo). This Wikipedia page only concerns itself with the wealth of information described in the first volume written by Charles Martrin-Donos and published in 1886, available at the Maastricht Jesuit library.

First page inside the book of the 2nd volume of the serie by Charles Martrin-Donos

Publishing History

The Publication of the trilogy The Belgians in Central Africa was conducted by the Brussels’s editor Pierre Maes. The book was compiled into three separate volumes under the name of two different author. Adolph Burdo was the author of the first volume: De Zanzibar au lac Tanganika . The following two volumes on the other hand were written by the infamous author Charles Martrin-Donos and were specifically concerned with the Congo and its region. All three volumes were published side by side in 1886 in Brussels. Moreover three prints of the collection were published a few years apart, the last one under an entirely new title and with yet another author's name. There are different arguments as to why the author changed during the editorial process. Some believe that Adolphe Burdo failed to comply with editorial criterion and miscarried colonial propaganda. In fact a law suit between both parties in 1885 was filled thus removing Adolphe Burdo from circulation .

The turn of the XIXth century was notable for its revolution in communication. Literature about exploration and colonization became a lucrative industry as printing democratized itself and was made available to the wider public. This new medium for information created more transparent links between civil society, politicians, the scientific community and business interests. Censorship, plagiarism and editorial control are few examples of methods available to exercise pressure on such media. Travel literature and its scrutiny, accomplished by discourse analysis often concludes that Travelogues were vehicles of self-perception, serving both as a means to endorse colonial rhetoric but also as a source of remuneration for explorers, writers and publishers . This accounts for the sequential nature in which the book was published, a monthly system of printing would yield higher profits and preserve loyal readership.

Author

It is very difficult to find information about Charles Martrin-Donos as an individual or as a writer. It is unclear whether or not the author ever set foot in Africa let alone the Congo. It can only be certain that he was a member of the Société Géographique (Geographic society) as well as the author of a few other books. The law suit between Adolphe Burdo and Pierre Maes in March 1885 is very representative of the monopolistic power editors had at the time. Moreover the studies that parallel Charles Martrin-Donos's work with that of Charles Jeannest, author of the book Quatres années au Congo, confirms that plagiarism was a frequent undertaking in the world of publishing. Indeed entire section of Jeannest's work were plagiarized and duplicated shamelessly.

Transfer of knowledge from Congo to Belgium

Africa as a research laboratory

The Belgians in Central Africa, throughout its chapters endows the exploration of Stanley and of the other explorers with a grand scientific objective and vocation. The book essentially depicts the continent as an immense laboratory in which European States cooperated and competed in a race for national glory.

The majority of the accounts in Charles Martrin-Donos’s book are events occurring during the descent of the “Livingstone River”. The majority of this river, which is today called the Kasai River was explored on a steamboat known as: Lady Alice.

Map representing the journey followed by the explorers in the books. Most regions and waterways are mentioned in the text which makes this a helpful map when reading

The book's style subtly espouses a scientific methodology or rigueur, thus blurring the lines between the travelogue genre and a possible scientific essay. The issue of authority of sources, concerned with the validity of the “facts” offered by the book, make room for an epistemological debate concerning the book’s content. ). The narrator, who is omnipresent in the chapters, uses freely the pronouns “we” or “he”. He claims to have an insight on emotions felt by the indigenous man”: “he is sad (…) melancholic (…) subjected to the realization of his inferior morals”. (p279). Moreover, the author also has authority over the western explorers who are said to feel: “an infinite faith in their enterprise (...) banishing their fears and anxieties” (p.299). Since the author has not actively taken part in these endeavors it becomes difficult to measure the veracity of his statements. The book rarely refers to sources and only provides cosmetic facts by giving the dates of various missions and by employing the coordinate system when changing location. Such techniques of standardization can be interpreted as objectivist strategies which seek to derive their scientific authority by conforming to the canons of science.

Fauna and Flora

In the chapters written by Charles Martrin- Donos, the irregular appearances of Congolese Flora and Fauna appear to be the only disinterested materials in the book. Interestingly the depictions of plants or animal are often not placed in front of their description or relevance in the story. They come in many shapes and sizes and apart for their esthetic role, are never employed towards real ambition. A few specific minerals and agriculture goods in light of trade prospects can be found but much of the wildlife and vegetation are left unaccounted for, solely conveying a sense of hostility of the Central African environment. Seemingly such an effect aims at perpetuating the journal “format” and structure, thus prioritizing material evidence in order to compose a fictional body of empirical evidence. The Latin names of Flora and Fauna are often provided such as page 100 when the Pogonorhyncus oegaster is presented. In light of Helen Tilley’s work the International Association of the Congo is a symbol of the predominantly European Scientific Diasporas of the time. The institution created served multiple interests and ideologies, some of which were scientific, others colonial and in the case of this book also often racial.

Anthropological study

One of the most recurrent proceedings of the book are the repeated attempt by Charles Martrin-Donos to provide an anthropological, cultural and often ethnical overview of the various tribes and customs of the Congolese natives. Evidently the anthropological tools, mostly in discourse, employed by the book are different from the ones deemed acceptable by anthropologists today. Stereotypes, racial and ethnical arguments flourish in the chapters ranging from physical descriptions to statements about cognitive processes.

Polytheism

The most vigorous criticism of Central African customs are linked to Polytheism and superstition. The concept of Subversive science is most apparent in the pseud-anthropological sections of this book. The authority produced by the Enlightenment culture during the 19th century can be measured by the sense of superiority conveyed in the descriptions of African spiritual beliefs.

This is illustration perfectly depicts the ideas and clichés provided by the book regarding native religious customs and belief. The sorcerer here is covered in fetishes and other polytheist symbols.

Helen Tilley wrote in her book:“Science is socially constructed and all truth claims are produced within a specific political milieu that shapes their content”. This is apparent in the authors concern for monotheism, rational system of thoughts and derision of sorcery and magic. For instance the author writes: “Black people, like all ignorant and superstitious beings, are inclined to see miraculous happening in whatever it is they cannot easily explain”. (p.99). Moreover the sorcerers are often associated to authoritarian power. They are depicted as abusing and manipulating the natives who are perpetually viewed as candid and infantile. For example: “The institution of sorcerers is all-mighty in the Manyanga district. The power of the makokos vanishes in front of the immense credit, domination, tyranny that exert sorcerers".

The close ties in the book with the philosophy of Enlightenment as an era combating religious tyranny is apparent. The anthropological sections of this book tend to disclose substantial information about European habits. Some of the descriptions of religious customs are grotesque, exorcism for example is depicted as diabolical and human sacrifice is a recurrent theme. Much of this information is postulated as morally neutral and impartial. What Edward Said would refer to as Orientalism: “a body of ideas, beliefs, clichés and learnings” about the Other, it is systematically linked to backwardness, despotism and wide-eyed ignorance of the African tribes. The author presents the Babouenndé’s fascination for personification and fetishes. He then argues that: “anything that by nature may affect the destiny of an individual becomes an object of cult and adoration; mountains, rocks, waters…” (p.280). Spirits are also proof of credulousness: “ The black man who sees in every object the spirits he desires, picks one randomly, ties it around his neck (…) and makes it his” (p.280). All these linguistic devices illustrate the superiority implied by European culture discourse and purposely rationalize the colonization of the “Dark Continent”.

Cannibalism

Cannibalism and its practice constitutes alongside polygamy, polytheism and magic, one of the themes most susceptible of portraying the moral inferiority and barbarism of Central African tribes. It also appears to be a motif of western fascination, easily subject to sublime and ready-made assumptions about the frightening yet fascinating undertaking of cannibalism. On the thirty sixth page of the book Martrin-Donos writes:

A few indigenous people shouted with joy: Bo bo bo bo! Bo bo bo o-o-o-! (some meat, some meat, ah! ah! ah) and they watched him and his men just like a gourmet watches a capon truffé.

This passage presents a literary tool known as: the principle of attachment which occurs throughout the book. The idea beind this technique is the following: the author attaches unknown practices to common cultural reference points in order to simplify the process of representation for the European reader at home. In a sense Martrin-Donos was: “portraying Africa as it existed in his mind and, more generally as it existed in the modern European collective imagination” (Firchow, 2000, p.23). The stereotypical descriptions are difficultly detached from fiction: “The sacrifice of the bird is a progress: only a few years ago, the eunuchs sacrificed not a chicken or a duck, but a human victim, most of the time a slave chosen as the fattest one in the area” (p.406). Considering the unilateral nature of anthropological work in Central Africa during the 19th century, and seeing that these accounts are voiced by a colonial editor in a time of cultural domination it is unlikely that the veracity of these accounts can ever truly be revealed.

Knowledge transfer: From Belgium to Congo

Africa perceived a historically and culturally blank continent

The Belgians in in Central Africa begins its narration with a very brief overview of Congolese history. The synopsis provided by the novel begins in the fifteenth century once the Portuguese military reaches the country of Zaire (today’s Congo). Before that, the pre-colonial time is ignored and brushed aside as untraceable and historically irrelevant (p.3). In fact the beginning of Charles Martrin-Donos’ book is similar to the first chapter of Edward Said’s book Orientalism, in which Arthur James Balfour’s Lecture to the House of Commons is depicted. Both passages explicitly report that knowledge about the colony, Congo in the case of Martrin-Donos, Egypt in the case of Said, is exclusively in the hands of Europeans. The geographical, cultural and moral understanding of African nations by Europeans scientists and politicians makes room for their domination of the country both intellectually and economically. One of the recurrent literary tool used by the author in light of discourse analysis can be coined as a process of infantilization. Indeed through-out the book the assimilation of the Congolese by western customs is described as evident and as a relatively straight forward process. For instance page 55 the author writes: “the most flourishing nations have fed a population of 90 million inhabitants morally obscured under the thick and deep darkness of ignorance and barbarians”. The indigenous people are referred to as “tall children” (p.56) thus emphasizing their innocence. Lastly, as stated page 208 when the Bateké people are portrayed as “soft and inoffensive”. The process of simplification concerning native history and culture is recurrent in exploration literature. These processes occur outside the African literature framework. For instance, in books by Christopher Columbus concerned with the discovery of the new world, American Indians are also portrayed as juvenile and childlike. It also visible in other African accounts such as in King Leopold's Ghost by Hochschild. Africa in 19th century literature tends to be perceived and recounted as “empty” thereby silencing its voice and autonomy.

A European responsibility to civilize

Through-out Charles Martrin-Donos’s work, the responsibility of Europeans and more specifically of Belgians to educate, civilize and enlighten the Congolese region and Africa as a whole is constantly forwarded. Explorers tend to be portrayed as heroes if not martyrs of the civilizing mission they take upon themselves. The author perpetually reminds to reader of the harsh conditions of life in Africa. The climate, diseases, danger of these adventures are paralleled with the bravery of Belgian explorers. For instance p.209:” The two explorers had known hunger, disease, misery; these passed pains were nothing compared to the moral torture they had to endure”. Moreover he writes p.270: “hours of fever every 15 days, torrential rains or endless droughts accompanied by scorpions, millipedes, (…) snakes”.

In this fashion Science and Sensation mingle, the greatness of explorers contrast astutely with the inhospitable climate and surroundings. These civilizing explorers referred to in the book; Stanley, Livingstone or Adolphe Gillis tend to be described by means of grand hyperboles of bravery, intelligence and ruse. They are described as men of” initiative, action, duty and progress” (p.52). Their motives are said to be “disinterested, patriotic and faithful”. Lastly melancholia about Belgium and the European continent is also present through-out the chapters. They speak of the “absent and regretted nation”.The pinnacle of symbolism is reaches when explorer Janssen attempts to recreate the Belgian flag; red, yellow and black and leaves it floating above the landscape and the people, seemingly overseeing their daily lives.

State building

Leopold II: a Philanthropic Monarch

One of the particularities of The Belgian in Central Africa is the rational pressed by the author towards Colonialism. More specifically, the Humanist, if not Philanthropic nature of Belgian’s quest.In the famous novel Heart of Darkness, the author presents in his analysis the concept of mythology of colonialism. In other words the development of beliefs and intention which seeks to justify imperial intervention. King Leopold II specifically is described as a close to godly figure. Words to describe him are extremely idolizing: “Immortal” (p21), “inspiration” (.p21), “Leopold the sage (…) protector of the arts, of science, of industry and initiator of this sublime crusade towards the black continent” (p.409) Through-out the book such metaphors are apparent. Interestingly the only character capable of competing with the altruistic nature of the King is Stanley the explorer himself. Descriptions by the omnipresent narrator range from Stanley’s physical anatomy to his emotional state. On the twenty-third page of the book an entire page is dedicated to a sturdy depiction of him. Stanley is described as a “writer and famous explorer”, “a man for whom material danger and physical obstacles (…) never existed”. (p.25). through his adventure he proves, strength, adaptability, morals, sentimentality etc. Such literary tools can also be observed in the book: In search of a character: two African journals in which sensory expressions are also very dominant. This process empowers the descriptions of explorers with emotions, drama and conveys a sense of empathy to the reader. Such practices promote the colonial agenda all whilst distancing itself from the questionable 14th century practice of slavery.

Not slavery: the construction of a functioning State

It is interesting to highlight the tone used in the novel with concerns to Slavery. The Belgians in Central Africa negates any similarities with such practices and heavily frowns upon them. The language and arguments forwarded by the author convey a sense of enlightened, altruistic intervention in the Congo. As explained by the author Tilly, there was in some of these scientific expedition an intentionality linked to political autonomy and self-governance as advocated by the ideas of enlightenment. Indeed as paradoxical as it may seem the state was called The Free State of Congo . The International Association of the Congo (Comité du haut Congo) becomes the instrument of such a rhetoric. Referred to as a “high initiative” (p.53) the committee is said to have a: “humanistic nature, seeking justice, loyalty (…) never having to use violence, material superiority (…) only by persuasion, kindness and proper conduct will it be successful” (p.56). Through an “obfuscatory process”, the superiority of the West in naturalized and the necessity of “civilizing Africa” fostered. Previous interventionist customs such as slavery are seen as entirely detached if not antithetical to Colonization. The book speaks of a “republican confederation of free black men”. Moreover it states that: “The project is not to create a Belgian colony but to jot down the basis of a powerful black state”. Martrin-Donos in his work promotes the idea of interventionist colonialism rather than intense cultural assimilation. In other words the implementation of efficient agriculture systems, disease control, administrative infrastructure etc. He even argues p.135 that: “The comity is a humanitarian endeavor and not a grand commercial enterprise”. Further analysis of economic advantage presented in the book will come and discredit such intentions.

Commercial Interests

Trade

The Colonization of the Congo as a commercial and entrepreneurial enterprise is very openly discussed in Charles Martrin-Donos’s book. In fact, it presents itself as the most straightforward mechanism to develop the country. It is seen as a necessary tool for the opening of the African continent to the rest of the world. Belgium was not alone in this system of thought, the 19th century was dominated by economic mercantilism which perceived colonialism as a mean to increase a nation’s income and its access to raw materials. The Berlin Conference, which divided Africa into European parcels was the political manifestation of such practices. The title of Forbath’s book is a perfect illustration of such ideas. Indeed The River Congo: The discovery, exploration and exploitation of the world’s most dramatic river also discusses the adventures of Stanley, mostly in light of the region’s current and future economic benefaction, just as The Belgians in Central Africa does. Competition between European nations regarding the Colonization of Africa is explicit page 400 when the narrator states that colonizing Congo seeks: «to elevate Belgian (...) to the ranks of the most powerful nations of Europe who, like England and France, dispute amongst each other the honor of expanding the domain of knowledge (…) and to expand the working field of humanity”. It is clear that national or royalist glorification, pride and the greatness of a European State was measured by the success of its colonial enterprise. Certain aspects of these rivalry are even comic: “nonetheless in the year 1882, death stroke more Swedish, Danish our British agents of the International Association, than it did Belgian nationals”. (p407). Others are solely pecuniary in nature: “The brotherhood of these people makes room for rivalry (…) white people are no longer friends, they are competitors” (p.78). Large portions of the book are dedicated to the inventory-type assessment of Central African plants, minerals and other raw materials, often describing their potential value as a manufactured good or as an exportable. For instance: “the land on the coast offers palm oil, sesame, copal, coffee, coconuts (…) Tabaco, and rubber” (.p74). The variety of descriptions of goods is impossible to recount, nonetheless minerals; copper, gold and diamonds are referred to (for example p.131) as well as ivory, iron and amply more.

Instructions on how to trade in Central Africa

The geographic obstacles or advantages to trade are provided by the author as well as accounts on how to conduct small scale and large scale negotiations. Such narratives are interesting because they suggest expectations the publisher or author have about the type of audience the book receives. Through these techniques the book is providing a prescription on practicing successful trade in the Congo. For instance discussing the geographic advantages of the land: “the immense waterway (…) brings water and fertilizes the large region (…) thus examining the possibility of faster imports” (p.53). Or by exposing the abundance and relatively easy employing of the land: “With a sum of minimum effort, the European grower could reach magnificent results by applying to the Congo the agricultural progress (…) of civilized nations, mother of industry and commerce.” (p.132).

The benefits of such effort will be, according to the book reaped by the average citizen and the nation as a whole. For this cultural stereotypes when practicing trade in Central Africa flourish in the book. Descriptions range from:

The image depicts a local Congolese market. The goods available are very limited and unmanufactured. Moreover the women is mostly undressed, rather smiling. Seemingly confirming the notion of Africa as underdeveloped and primitive.

- Price setting: “The initial price of the white man is never accepted”. (p.77)

- Cultural habits: “ The merchants complain, shout with despair, cry out accusing them of being thieves for hours and its only after a real struggle with patience, tenacity, wit and diplomacy that the manager can acquire goods”. (p77)

- Exchangeable commodities: “The price composes itself of a certain number of guns, kilos of gun powder, and pieces of fabric.” (.77) Some of these are even sector specific and elaborate of the trade of ivory or palm oil more extensively.

Belgian settlers- Living in the Congo

Some relatively large sections on the book focus on describing life of Occidentals, namely Europeans living on Africa and presents the average colonial routine. The author discusses disease, life near the tropics, availability of imports and more. There is a red-thread throughout the book that subtly undermines the estrangement association a reader might have with settling in Africa. It is a rather paradoxical approach since Charles Martrin-Donos within the same chapter, will expose the perilous and agonizing adventures of Stanley, whilst simultaneously promoting a welcoming setting for Belgian businesses men and their families. Both designs convey a very contrasted and irregular description of the Congo; thus nourishing the imagination of the reader. The following passage is a perfect example of this inconsistency:

At almost every point of the black continent, where the odd legends, the fantastic monsters, and the unlimited deserts, products of the imagination of our fathers have delayed the discoveries, experiences travelers have acknowledged that established Europeans, equipped with that which is necessary, but also of the superfluous they might need to resist the influences of the African climate, can live without being exposed to a more prompt death (p.106).

There are a variety of European customs and system of solidarity that are described in the book. In the factories of Boma for instance the Belgians, French, Dutch and Portuguese live alongside one another. The reader is told about the challenges of sun strokes: “Almost every single one of them, after a prolonged stay under these latitudes, have a burned complexion caused by the sun (….) but in politics just like in physiology color doesn’t affect moral qualities”(p.107).. Furthermore the narrator describes life in Boma as interchangeable with the one in Europe. At 7.30 in the morning they are said to have breakfast with tea or chocolate and at 6 at night the settlers get to choose from different menus for dinner (p.106). All these encouragements informs the reader about the concerns Europeans might have had about life outside of Europe. Charles Martrin-Donos through the depiction of brave explorers countervails these anxieties. Janssen for example “perfects his use of the indigenous language every day, thus creating a very friendly relationship with the king of the area”. (. 261). These means of adapting to life in tropical Africa aim at promoting not only the interest in the region or the reader but his eventual stay there. Such means if integration of white colonizers is not uninvolved though, indeed as highlighted by the author:

"France in Senegal acquired immense domains for a few liters of spirit, guns; the worth of treaties passed in the black continent does not depend on the willingness of the black man but dependent on the power of the one proposing and the way he can keep these treaties respected.

Factories, Harbors and agriculture

The economic potential of the Congo is possibly the single most developed theme in the book, as chapters systematically describe raw materials and wealth prospects for Belgium and Belgians. Agriculture to begin with is stated to be: ”an economic wealth and the mother of commerce and industry” (p.344). Charles Martrin-Donos does argue that: “ that it will take many years to educate the blacks in pursuing more ample benefits (…) the settlers will sooner or later be the masters of the industrial arts of these tribes” (ibid). Very similar statements can be found regarding manufactured goods and minerals. The tobacco growing on the island of Nketé by the Dutch for instance is said to be a rival to the leaves gathered by Europeans in Cuba. In fact all these disclosings portray the Congo as the most fertile land in tropical Africa, if not of the entire continent. A large part of colonizing the Congo translated in building infrastructure for transport, especially in the exporting frame-of-mind. Ports and harbors were exemplifications of civilization in Africa, symbols of infrastructure and connectedness with the European Continent. The port of Banana for instance is as long as four kilometers and said to be double the size of l’Escau; a maritime city of Belgian (p.65). The author then asks rhetorically: “What was missing in this natural port to acquire considerable importance? (…) It needed the benefits, movement and activity that the Comité d’étude would provide generously”. All these installations aimed at helping development in this town referred to as “the Antwerp of Africa”.

Technology during the industrial revolution were tokens of civilization, wealth and expertise. The largest boat in the Banana port is described with much enthusiasm. Called La Belgique the steamers is said to measure 65 feet in length, 11 in width, 5 and a half feet of depth and can reach a speed of 8 knots. It is slightly larger than the other boat of the comity known as “La jeune Africaine “(The young African) p. 68. The factories are described as “local palaces” and the equivalent of “villages”. Business is plentiful on the Occidental coast of the Congo, the factories are built from wood imported in Europe, filled with shops and products, plus they are said to be: “under constant surveillance” (p. 64). The possibility of consuming as one would in Europe, and the notion of safety and shelter are devices used to create a sense of familiarity and attachment. The seventeenth chapter is very interesting in such a perspective. The extract is mostly devoted to the construction of a sanitarium in Boma. The description of establishment could be of a house in Europe. Indeed the small hospital is said to have a small veranda, 8 rooms nicely light and ventilated, there are beds, chairs, couches basically “all the possible comfort one can hope for in a country barely touched by civilization” (p.403). The achievement of such luxury is delivered as the symbol of a possible and comfortable settlement of Belgians.

Peace keeping: a pre-requisite for business

Intriguingly the Belgian explorers are regularly depicted as peace keeper in the Congo. They act as mediators between various tribes and prove to have both demagogic and diplomatic skills as well superior military power. Charles Martrin Donos tells the readers that:” Frequently from village to village, war is declared for no good reason and last long months”. Moreover their warfare technics are described as primitive. They are said to fight with “guns that shoot rocks”, they are protected by “monkey skin” and shoot so far away from one another that “never more than a pair of men die”. (p.284)

As usual the native man is depicted as undressed. He has some fabric wrapped around his hips but more importantly a large sword is attached to him. Central to the drawing.The man is represented as strong and tall, but his weapons and attire are very primitive, especially since he is meant to be royalty.

War scene, just like religious demonstrations are often an opportunity for the narrator to exaggerate the assumed barbarity of African tribes and the lack of morals in their customs.

“They massacre, cut each other’s throats, huts are sacked, destroyed, burned down (…) to stop the bloodshed, avoid the horrors of civil war, to stop the hostilities (…) those were the responsibilities of the commanders.” (p.286).

The explorers thus endorse the role of pacifier and peacekeeper as a results of their patience and generosity. Nevertheless, the situation can easily mutate into yet another demonstration of Western domination and strength. During a trying negotiation, tensions rise and Charles Martrin-Donos writes:

“The superiority of the arms, the trust in the white chief, the ability and audacity of Stanley’s men, was a guarantee of their victory. The yellers and howlers of Ngaliema, were surprised by the tumultuous happenings” (p.314).

Both in combat and in negotiations the Europeans are certain to surpass their rivals. These passages reinforce the ethos of European domination, skillfully avoiding any demonstrations of violence or malevolence. The prospects of war with the ingenious people is rationalized by the far more worrying possibility of rivalry with other European powers. The Darwinist concepts of survival of the fittest is applied to the colonial enterprise.