User:Eap7/sandbox

Article Evaluation

Feminization of Agriculture

This article seems to take a one sided stance on the effects of women in agriculture. There seems to be a focus on the negative implications with many not strongly cited pieces of the article. A lot of statements are pretty general and not strongly backed. It approaches feminization of agriculture nu starting with a "feminist economics" view to define it through this one lens. It discusses aspects of agriculture that do not have strong roots in the role of women specifically, including the section on "food insecurity." Many statements throughout the whole piece also have citations that are not very elaborate (i.e. Deer 2009 pg99 and ActionAid 2010). The information pulled in the last section that could be developed more involved only citations from the organization it is discussing. The section for other causes of this phenomenon could also be more fully developed. I think this article could benefit from a wider variety of sources and viewpoints incorporated into it.

Transnational Feminism

This article is relevant to my area as it discusses transnational feminism and the theories, history and concerns of this term. It has subsections for a wide variety of things that are relevant to transnational feminism and critiques of multiple sides of the movement.

Women and the Environment

This article could use more elaboration on WED in specific. I also think restructuring it to have the WED debate as a part of the theoretical perspectives section would make more sense. For "Farming and Agriculture" they focus on Latin America, the Caribbean and Africa and I think it could benefit from a section on India as well.

Summarizing and Synthesizing

Sector

The United Nations has taken a focus on women in the environment as a way to move forward in global development. This framework places women as a key role in creating a sustainable environment for communities (UN Women Watch). The evidence of women’s current status in the world exists but no evidence of the impact that a change in policy can have on them has been produced. The United Nations reports that 45-80% of food produced in developing countries is farmed by women. Women in agriculture compose a majority of the labor force in countries around the world. (UN fact sheet). 

With the UN’s stance that focuses on women, the framing of the situation is crucial in deciphering its actions and outcomes.  Ecofeminism is a root ideology in the larger women’s movement around the globe although it has lost its meaning through the process of politicization. Ecofeminism (link to article) argues that women have an innate biological connection to nature and therefore can act as natural stewards of the land, replenishing it with life (Leach).  When these ideologies crossed into the political sphere, the focus was shifted from prioritizing women to prioritizing sustainable development with women as the means for such (Leach). This framework can shed light on the UN movements for promoting gender equality. 

The outcome of the UN movements for promoting women in areas such as agriculture has not been scientifically proven to have any beneficial results on women communities (Missing Women in Ag Reforms).

Sector: Women and the Environment

Asia and Pacific Islands

In the Asian and Pacific Island regions, 58% of women involved in the economy are found in the agriculture sector. This involves work in own-account farms, labor in small enterprises for processing fruits, vegetables and fish, paid and unpaid work on other peoples land, and collecting forest products. Out of all the women working in this sector, 10-20% have been found to have tenure to the land they work on. Reasons for this number include economic and legal barriers. For example, in terms of loans women are found to get fewer and less loans to acquire land then men.

One other factor that plays into women’s land rights for agriculture is the cultural norms of the area. In the Asian and the Pacific women’s societal rolls have been defined by patriarchal norms of the larger global society, where men are viewed as breadwinners and women are viewed as caretakers. This can be expressed through the number of hours women spend doing unpaid care work per day. In developing countries in total, women spend 4 hours and 30 minutes of care work a day versus the 1 hour and 2 minutes that men spend.

In Pacific Islands and coastal regions women are strongly engaged in subsistence fishing as well as collection of food in local habitats. These habitats, such as mangroves, sea grass beds, and lagoons are all being negatively influenced by a changing climate, thereby having an impact on the women in this sector.

Climate Change and Women

Many of the environmental effects of climate change have disproportionately placed women in more vulnerable circumstances. Environmental occurrences that effect the activities women are found to be mainly responsible for in developing countries include increase in storm frequency and intensity, increase in floods, droughts, and fires. The Indian Government’s National Action Plan on Climate Change said “The impacts of climate change could prove particularly severe for women. With climate change there would be increasing scarcity of water, reductions in yields of forest biomass, and increased risks to human health with children, women and the elderly in a household becoming the most vulnerable. …special attention should be paid to the aspects of gender.” For example, in the Pacific Islands and coastal areas of Asia women are strongly engaged in subsistence fishing as well as collection of food in local habitats. These habitats, such as mangroves, sea grass beds, and lagoons are all being negatively influenced by a changing climate, creating barriers in the direct work of women which then ripple out to their community. .

The subsequent response to the connection between women and climate change has evoked multiple responses in the policy realm. Policy makers have shifted policy to reflect gender sensitive frameworks to address climate change. Arora-Jonsson argues that by focusing on the vulnerability of women in relation to climate change, it places more responsibility on women and shifts the narrative to ignore the root causes of the issue, power relations and institutional inequality.

WID and WED Debate

Different discourses have shaped the way that sustainable development is approached, and as time goes on women have become more integrated in shaping these ideas. The definition of Sustainable development is highly debated itself, but is defined by Harcourt as a way to "establish equity between generations" and to take into account "social, economic, and environmental needs to conserve non-renewable resources" and decrease the amount of waste produced by industrialization. The first discourse that emerged in relation to women was Women in Development (WID) which then transformed into Women, Environment, and Development (WED). Critiques for WID included its place in a larger western mindset, perpetuating a colonial and liberal discourse that was not compatible with supporting the global population of women. WID placed women as central actors in household, rural and market economies and looked to the hierarchical institution of western development to fix the issues that arise because of this .

The next shift in discourse took place in the early 1970's, where people began to critique the roots of development and start to look at alternative ways to go about interacting with the global community and developing countries, with women and the environment as central actors. This was defined as Women, Environment, Development (WED). . According to Schultz et al.,[5] "The women, environment and development debate (WED-debate) is anchored in a critical view of development policies where the link between modernization/industrialization and technology on the one hand and environmental deterioration on the other is focused" (p4). WED discourse is centralized around the synthesis of different ideologies, one of which being ecofeminism.. Ecofeminism may be seen as a root ideology for WED, whereas women are viewed with a biological connection to nature that enables them to have a deeper connection and stewardship of it. This ideology was transformed into the political sphere where it took a new shape as women having a socially constructed connection to nature through our global systems.

Programs started in the 1990's based on the WED discourse and were instituted by the United Nations International Research Training Institute for the Advancement of Women (INSTRAW). These programs were in response to the relation between gender and environmental violences such as waste disposal, pesticide use nuclear testing and other detrimental environmental practices .

The outcome of many of these programs did not produce the desired impacts on women . The WED discourse placed emphasis on women as solution holders to environmental issues but policies were not directed at empowering women, rather the sectors that women are involved in, such as agriculture. . Leach argues that the overall impact of politicizing the role of women and the environment through the WED discourse appropriated women's labor without providing proper resources or capacity to succeed.

Area: Transnational Feminist Networks

Aim of TNF's

Women’s groups form in response to the negative effects of globalization and TFNs emerge when these women’s groups come together to resolve shared issues. These groups work with one another across borders and they recognize their differences but also discover their similarities and form strong coalition’s bases on these similarities. In describing a conference held by the International Network of Women’s Studies Journals, Tahera Aftab relayed that

“the objective of the INWSJ conference was to set up a network for interdisciplinary feminist and women’s studies journals with a focus on the development and inclusion of a transnational feminist understanding of women’s development issues…” Just as these academics worked to reach consensus on issues, so do women’s groups who form TFNs.

Valentine Mogadam best describes TFNs in her book Globalizing Women: Transnational Feminist Networks. She states in her text:

“TFN’s have arisen in the context of economic, political, and cultural globalization—and they are tackling both the particularistic and the hegemonic trends of globalization. They are advancing criticisms of inequalities and forms of oppression, neoliberal economic policies, unsustainable economic growth and consumption, and patriarchal controls over women. In a word, transnational feminist networks are the organizational expression of the transnational women’s movement, or global feminism” (Moghadam 104). There are various issues that TFNs deal with in a structural and organizational context—the most prevalent being the lack of financial funding. Lack of proper funding usually results in a lack to necessary resources but many TFNs usually find a way to accomplish their goals with the minimal funding they do have available.

Types of TFNs include: -Feminism against neoliberalism; mainly about men and women's economic policy. -Feminism against fundamentalism. -Feminism against imperialism and war. -Feminism humanitarianism; feminism through kindness, sympathy, and direct aid. Sections to Add: Conflict in TFNs's: Conflict is a main topic when it comes to TNF's as each organization comes from a different background and region. Snyder argues this conflict is essential for strengthening the network by creating a space for recognition of different cultures and agendas and finding a way to move forward together. Through methods of conflict resolution and elaborate discussions,

To Introduction: TNF's are composed of representatives from a variety of NGO's from around the globe. These representatives then come together at conferences, such as the United Nations World Conference on Women and The NGO Forum in China. (Snyder)

TNF Article for Editing

[[Transnational corporationsA transnational feminist network (TFN) is a network of women’s groups who work together for women’s rights at both a national and transnational level.

Contents [hide] 1 Globalization 2 Aims of TFNs 3 Examples 4 References

Globalization[edit source] TFNs are similar to non-governmental organizations (NGOs) but while NGOs work at a local and national level, TFNs create coalitions across borders. Globalization affects women worldwide in adverse ways and TFNs emerged in response to these effects. TNF's are composed of representatives from a variety of NGO's from around the globe. These representatives then come together at different conferences or meetings, including: The United Nations World Conference on Women NGO Forum in China, 95' (Snyder)

According to Johanna Brenner in her article Transnational Feminism and the Struggle for Global Justice:

“Economic insecurity and impoverishment, exposure to toxics, degradation of water, high infant and maternal mortality rates, forced migration, increased hours spent in paid and unpaid work are only some of the indicates (sic) of women’s burdens worldwide” Brenner also states that

“[t]hird world governments are male-dominated, often inefficient, plagued by cronyism, and sometimes corrupt; and the pressures of structural adjustment programs imposed on them by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank have certainly aggravated these tendencies” (Brenner 78). Programs like Structural Adjustment Programs (SAPs) are part of the package of globalization that is presented to other countries; and while such programs are portrayed as being valuable to improve the status of a country, they result in creating worse situations for the peoples of a country.

Aims of TFNs[edit source] Women’s groups form in response to the negative effects of globalization and TFNs emerge when these women’s groups come together to resolve shared issues. These groups work with one another across borders and they recognize their differences but also discover their similarities and form strong coalition’s bases on these similarities. In describing a conference held by the International Network of Women’s Studies Journals, Tahera Aftab relayed that

“the objective of the INWSJ conference was to set up a network for interdisciplinary feminist and women’s studies journals with a focus on the development and inclusion of a transnational feminist understanding of women’s development issues…” Just as these academics worked to reach consensus on issues, so do women’s groups who form TFNs.

The goal of these alliances is to strengthen the voice on certain issues on a global level, coming to common grounds on social infrastructure and ways to move forward. (Snyder).

Valentine Mogadam best describes TFNs in her book Globalizing Women: Transnational Feminist Networks. She states in her text:

“TFN’s have arisen in the context of economic, political, and cultural globalization—and they are tackling both the particularistic and the hegemonic trends of globalization. They are advancing criticisms of inequalities and forms of oppression, neoliberal economic policies, unsustainable economic growth and consumption, and patriarchal controls over women. In a word, transnational feminist networks are the organizational expression of the transnational women’s movement, or global feminism” (Moghadam 104). There are various issues that TFNs deal with in a structural and organizational context—the most prevalent being the lack of financial funding. Lack of proper funding usually results in a lack to necessary resources but many TFNs usually find a way to accomplish their goals with the minimal funding they do have available.

Types of TFNs include: -Feminism against neoliberalism; mainly about men and women's economic policy. -Feminism against fundamentalism. -Feminism against imperialism and war. -Feminism humanitarianism; feminism through kindness, sympathy, and direct aid.

Examples[edit source] A few TFN’s:

Sisterhood Is Global Institute (SIGI), Women Learning Partnership for Rights, Development, and Peace (WLP), Women Living Under Muslim Laws (WLUML) (http://www.wluml.org), and Association for Women’s Rights in Development (AWID) (http://www.awid.org).]]

Fem of Ag article for Editing

In feminist economics, the feminization of agriculture refers to the measurable increase of women's participation in the agricultural sector, particularly in the developing world.[1][2] The phenomenon started during the 1960s with increasing shares over time. In the 1990s, during liberalization, the phenomenon became more pronounced and negative effects appeared in the rural female population.[3] Afterwards, agricultural markets became gendered institutions, affecting men and women differently. In 2009 World Bank, FAO & IFAD found that over 80 per cent of rural smallholder farmers worldwide were women, this was caused by men migrating to find work in other sectors.[4][5] Out of all the women in the labor sector, the UN found 45-80% of them to be working in agriculture [6]

The term has also been applied to other phenomena, including increasing shares of women in the agricultural workforce, male outmigration from rural areas, decreasing women's opportunities in agricultural productivity, and lower rural pay due to skill exclusions.[7] Activists have argued that the trend is dangerous and leads to food insecurity.[8]

Contents [hide] 1 Background 1.1 Diversification 1.2 Discrimination 1.3 Food insecurity 2 Theoretical causes 2.1 Economic liberalization 2.2 Other causes 3 Criticism 4 Activism 4.1 Organizations 4.2 Policies 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 External links Background[edit source] Women's role in the agricultural sector increased during the 1960s and has continued to grow. Women have been increasingly counted as heads of household,[9] running their own farms without male assistance. These households are often poorer than their male counterparts. Their plot sizes are usually smaller and have less access to other productive resources, like education, tools, and seeds,[10] something termed “investment poverty”.[11] Women agricultural workers are also less likely to have social connections, like credit and market networks.

In the rural environments there are two types of crop orientations, subsistence and export. Female-headed households are more likely to be subsistence orientated, which are often poorer. Export farmers are more likely to have substantial land endowments and to be male-headed. After structural adjustments export farmers became more vulnerable to price shocks, and women within this category more so.[12] Female-headed households also became more likely to change from high value export crops to subsistence.

Women running their own farms is a historically new trend, as men have traditionally done the heavy farm work. The use of the plow has typically been only men, and in many regions men still dominate. Typically, a reliance on the plow has been associated with male-dominated farming, which leads to crop inefficiencies if they leave.[13]

Diversification[edit source] These policies taxed the then profitable agricultural sector while raising tariffs on imports. The revenue was used to support urban government-sponsored enterprises. This created higher paying jobs in the city, which in combination with high taxes on agriculture, started drawing men towards cities. This early migration period was the first attempt to diversify income, mainly in-country. Women remained behind to farm alone, and do wage work locally. With male migration, the amount of labor dedicated to farming fell, as women retained the child care responsibilities.

This trend continued during liberalization, when the taxes (and subsidies) for agriculture were removed causing declines in agricultural incomes. These same structural adjustments removed support for the industries that held many jobs in the city, which further depressed incomes.

Discrimination[edit source] Social norms affect how men and women approach and are rewarded from the market. Men are seen as the bread-winners and thus are expected to be paid more and work year-round. Women are seen as secondary laborers, and thus tend to work in seasonal or otherwise temporary jobs. These positions are low wage and low skill. Women are not expected, nor encouraged to compete for higher wages or said jobs. Women who attempt to bargain for higher wages are seen as “distressed”, and viewed negatively.[14]

Export oriented agro-business perpetuates these stereotypes. Often women work seasonal jobs and aren't considered for permanent positions. These low-skill entry level jobs have low wages with no raises. Sometimes these positions require literacy and women wouldn't be eligible, as rates of education and literacy are higher in men than in women.

Food insecurity[edit source] The feminization of agriculture has been associated with food insecurity through poverty and limited crop yields. Structural adjustment of the 1990s abolished fertilizer and seed subsidies to rural farmers.[15] This has decreased crop growing potential and profitability. With some household's being on the brink of food-insecurity. In an attempt to compensate for lack of fertilizer, some have switched to lower quality crops. Measurable effects on rural mortality rates have started to become apparent.[16]

Theoretical causes[edit source] Economic liberalization[edit source] Liberalization critics argue the phenomenon is a result of failed liberalization policies.[17] During the 1980s there was a shift away from the Import substitution policies towards economic liberalization. The aim was to cut the government deficits and increase revenue through export led growth. It was believed that free markets would encourage growth through privatization.

Reductions of the budget deficits often required Austerity. Included in these policies was the disassembly of state entities, social support mechanisms, and various subsidies. The reduction of tariffs led to instability of farm income, due to market swings. Farmers have begun to grow more conservative crops and rely on wage labor, rather than farm income.

When social subsidies on education and health were removed, women became responsible for supplementing the increased cost.[18] This required an increase in their income, which led to diversification, and thus male out-migration. Women then remain on the farm, with the remainder of the family. In both Africa and Latin America male migration has been associated with feminization of the rural agricultural economy.

Liberalization also removed governmental institutions beneficial to farmers. Before liberalization there existed public credit facilities, as well as input assistance (fertilizer and seeds etc.), and marketing. In the period after liberalization, these institutions were never replaced by private mechanisms. Smaller farmers who once benefited from these, now have reduced productivity. These reductions, have negatively affected rural populations.[19][20]

Other causes[edit source] In Africa, regional issues affect the male rural population. The prevalence of disease (mainly HIV/aids) and warfare have reduced male populations. These effects can combine migration leading to substantial differences in gender. In the Congo there are as many as 170 women working for every 100 men in agriculture.[21]

Criticism[edit source] The most common criticism is the lack of available data.[22][23] A prominent concern is how to interpret the available data. The increase in women's participation in agriculture can be interpreted several ways. One is that more women are working in agriculture than were previously. The second is that men are working less, and women have remained are constant, and thus the share of women is rising. A third possibility is that neither have changed and that recent data have only begun to capture the women already working in agriculture.[24]

Determining causation has also been controversial. Without better data it is difficult to differentiate the regional trends from the universal. The developing world is broad and poorly understood. It is likely that a trend affecting one region will not apply to another.

Activism[edit source] Organizations[edit source] Several organizations have become concerned with the detrimental effects, and have sponsored projects.

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations works to improve food security. They stress increasing access to many necessary inputs to productive agriculture, including credit, education and training, and land.[25] They also promote the development of rural female farmers organizations. There has also been a move towards updating the legal codes of countries to give women the legal rights of property ownership and credit, which can allow for increased food security.

ActionAid is also involved in activism towards the alleviation of poverty. Two of their main purposes is to argue for gender equality and women's rights. They are involved in adult literacy and other education projects. They argue for a gender approach to agricultural development.[26] In 2008, the HungerFree Women project was created to address the issues facing rural women. The project was designed to enhance give media visibility to rural women, address discriminatory laws, prioritize women's rights and organize rural women.

Policies[edit source] With women as a large portion of agriculture workers, they are often denied power to make decisions about resources and access they have to land. [27]. Advocates have argued for policy change to address concerns. Actionaid argues for increasing funding to the agricultural sector for rural development. The World Bank argued that development policy should increase access to the agricultural resources that men have (e.g. land, credit facilities, health care).[28]

See also[edit source] Feminist economics Feminization of poverty Feminization of migration Women and the environment through history Women in agriculture in Afghanistan Women in agriculture in India Women in agriculture in Japan Women in agriculture in the United Kingdom

Women and the Environment article for Editing

Women, environment and development (WED) debate

The women, environment, and development debate (WED) began in the early 1970s due, largely in part, to the oil crisis.[1] In Mexico-City, in 1975, at the First World Conference on Women, introduced the issue of women and the environment.[5] Concern was raised about the depletion of forestry resources as people began to realize that those resources were finite. Women's role in agriculture and their role as woodfuel users began to come under scrutiny. Soon, a major connection was made between the impact environmental development had on women. According to Schultz et al.,[5] "The women, environment and development debate (WED-debate) is anchored in a critical view of development policies where the link between modernization/industrialization and technology on the one hand and environmental deterioration on the other is focused" (p4). The WED debate continues today but is more focused on globalization and sustainable development.[5]

Add India Under Farming and Agriculture

Climate Change and Women

Today, women struggle against alarming global trends, but they are working together to effect change. By establishing domestic and international non-governmental organizations, many women have recognized themselves and acknowledge to the world that they not only have the right to participate in environmental dilemmas but they have different relationship with environment including different needs, responsibilities, and knowledge about natural resources.[28] This is why women are affected differently from men by environmental degradation, deforestation, pollution and overpopulation. Women are often the most directly affected by environmental issues, so they become more concerned about environmental problems. Studies have shown the direct effects of chemicals and pesticides on human health.[29] According to United Nations Chronicle journal researchers have found an association between breast cancer and the pesticide DDT and its derivative DDE; and also one study by the World Health Organization has found that women who are exposed to pesticides face a higher risk of abortion.[29] These kinds of health problems cause women to feel more responsible regarding environmental issues.

Sector Sources

"Women, Gender Equality and Climate Change" UN WomenWatch. 2009. http://www.un.org/womenwatch/feature/climate_change/

This sheet discuses the specific effects of climate change on women, putting into scientific perspective the influences of the state of our world on women. It takes on the perspective discussed by Leach as a somewhat removed ecofeminist stance to promote their agenda. It is exactly the kind of discourse that is analyzed in Leaches piece and could be used as an example of this approach. It also contains statistics on the issue with women facing most of the threat, but does not frame any success had in this sector.

"Missing Women in Agriculture Reforms" Economic and Political Weekyly. Feb 23rd 2002.

This piece talks about women's role in agriculture and the actual effect that the current discussion of their needs in the political realm currently has. Even with some policies geared towards helping Ag they don't have a positive influence on women, geared at helping work in women's domain but not them specifically.

"The Role of Women in Agriculture" SOFTA Team and Cheryl Doss. Agriculture Development Economics Division. March 2011. This paper is useful for facts about women's role in agriculture, such as their involvement is based off of crop, region, production cycle, age. Facts on percentages of women in agriculture force based upon country-highest in Sub Saharan Africa (50%), then East and Southeast Asia, then East and North Africa then South Asia then Latin America and the Caribbean.

Leach, Melissa. Earth Mother Myths and Other Ecofeminist Fables: How a Strategic Notion Rose and Fell. Development and Change Volume 38 Issue 1 pg. 67-85 Jan 31, 2007.

WED perspective: women, environment, development—transition of WID into environmental domain. WID: women in development discourses. Fables of women natural, cultural or ideological closeness to nature. Tend to portray women as homogenous group. Draws on stereotypes, connections drawn with ecofeminism: women’s innate connection to nature (biological roots versus socially constructed connection. Framing of the feminine approach to development. Shaping it as a timeless and natural role for women-only sustained because of strategic interests and goals served. Critic started early to mid 1990’s. Terms reshaped as property rights, resource access and control: little evidence of politicized gender based perspective. Taking environmental issues into the political sphere: women as an answer. Collect wood, work farms, make food, haul water → deemed women knowledge holders for environment. Ecofeminism: ideological ground for social and political transformation. Ideas brought into political sphere to shape policy. Infiltrated spaces with less radical opinions. Buzz words: women and community (interchangeable. OUTCOME: women’s expense, appropriating their labor for benefits other than their own: responsibility of saving the environment without the resources or capacity to do so.

Wichelns, Dennis. "Achieving Water and Food Security in 2050: Outlook Policies and Investments" Agriculture. 2015.

Policy proposals based upon an outlook on food security that emphasizes the role of women, but not necessarily policies that help them: more the sector they are a part of. This idea is critiqued by "missing women in agriculture reforms" as the policies do not actually benefit the women, more the area they are involved in.

Harcourt, Wendy. Feminist Perspectives on Sustainable Development. International Society for Development 1994.

Goal of sustainable development: “to establish equity between generations” and take into account social, economic and environmental needs to conserve non-renewable resources and to decrease the wastes produced by industrialization. Shift from WID (Women in Development) to WED (Women, Environment, Development). Continues critique that economic development theory leaves out important gender relations. Women play role in household, rural, and market economies in mgmt. of natty resources (tie to Frasier). WED critiques all of development not just economic. Western development strategies nd biases ommitt both women and environment. Open to other cultures. WID still implements hierarchical western structure. Need to shift from capitalistic mode of converting nature to wealth to a way that respects the connection between people communities and their environment.

Jonsson-Arora, Seema (May 2011). "Virtue and vulnerability: Discourses on women, gender and climate change". Global Environmental Change. 21 (2): 744-751.

United Nations, Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (2017). Gender, the Environment and Sustainable Development in Asia and the Pacific. United Nations ESCAP Information on women and the environment specifically for Asia/Pacific region. Good information on agriculture for this area.

Area Sources

Snyder, Anna. "Transnational Dialogue: Building the Social Infrastructure for Transnational Feminist Networks" International Journal of Peace Studies Vol. 10 No. 2. 2005.

Discusses global conferences (which WEA attends) and how women overcome their conflicts in these spaces. Argued that women have more ability to overcome differences and find common ground.

Bloodgood, Elizabeth. Clough, Emily. "Transnational Advocacy Networks: A complex adaptive systems simulation model of the boomerang effect"SAGE Journals. March 3rd, 2016.

This paper analyses the good and bad of NGO networks and their purposes which I think could be very helpful in writing my article on how the importance/impact of transnational networks. It discusses their impacts on policy changes as effective on a state level, but leads to higher likelihood of collapse of NGO.

Friedman, Elisabeth. “Gendering the agenda: the impact of the transnational women’s rights movement at the UN conferences of the 1990’s” Vol 26. Issue 4. 2003 pg. 313-331

McKay, Susan. “Chapter 7: Women, Human Security, and Peace Building: A Feminist Analysis” Conflict and Human Security: A search for new approaches of Peace Building, 2004.

Woroniuk, Beth (1999). Women’s Empowerment in the context of Human Security: A Discussion Paper. Bangkok, Thailand.

Moghadam, Valentine (January 20, 2005). Globalizing Women: Transnational Feminism. JHU Press