Gender and development Gender and Development approach focus on the socially constructed[1] basis of differences between men and women and the need to challenge existing gender roles and relations.[2] This approach was majorly influenced by writing of academic scholars such as Oakley (1972) and Rubin (1975) which emphasize the social relationship between men and women.[3] These relationships they argue have systematically subordinated women.[4] This departs from WID which perceived women problem in terms of their biological differences rather than gender.[5] Influenced by this work, by the late 1970s, some practitioners working in the development field stated questioning the adequacy of focusing on women in isolation.[6] GAD challenged the WID focus on women as important ‘target group’[7] and ‘untapped resources’ for development. [8]GID marked a shift in thinking about the need to understand how women and men are socially constructed and how ‘those constructions are powerfully reinforced by the social activities that both define and are defined by them.’[9] GAD focus primarily on gender division of labor and gender as a relation of power embedded in institutions.[10] Consequently, two major frameworks ‘Gender roles’ and ‘social relations analysis’ are used in this approach.[11] Gender role focus on social construction of identities within the household, it also reveals the expectations from ‘maleness and femaleness’[12] in their relative access to resources. Social relations analysis exposes the social dimensions of hierarchical power relations imbedded in social institutions; also its determining influence on ‘the relative position of men and women in society.’[13] This relative position tends to discriminate against women.[14]
In an attempt to create gender equality, (denoting women having same opportunities as men, including ability to participate in the public sphere;[15] GAD policies aims to redefine traditional gender role expectations. Women are expected to fulfill household management tasks, home based production as well as bearing and raising children and caring for family members. The role of a wife is largely interpreted as 'the responsibilities of motherhood'[16] Men however, are expected to be breadwinners whom are associated with paid work, and market production.[17] In the labor market, women’s overall financial related payment tend to be lower usually earning less.For instance, 'a study by the Equality and Human Rights Commission found massive pay inequities in some United Kingdom’s top finance companies,women received around 80% less performance-related pay than their male colleagues.'[18] In reaction to inequalities between gender, Beijing Platform for Action established Gender mainstreaming in 1995 as a strategy across all policy areas at all levels of governance for achieving gender equality.[19]
Gender and Development approach has been subjected to many criticisms. GID perspective is theoretical distinct from WID, but in practice, a program seem to have the element of the two. Whilst many development agencies are now committed to a gender approach, in practice, the primary institutional perspective remains as WID.[20] There is a slippage in reality where gender mainstreaming is often based in a single normative perspective as synonymous to women.[21] Development agencies still advance gender transformation to mean economic betterment for women.[22]
References
edit- ^ Bertrand, Tietcheu (2006). "Being Women and Men in Africa Today: Approaching Gender Roles in Changing African Societies".
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ Reeves, Hazel (2000). Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions. Brighton. p. 8. ISBN 1-85864-381-3.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ {{cite book|last=Moser|first=Caroline|title=Gender Planing and Development. Theory, Practice and Training|year=1993|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=0-203-41194-3 Master e-book ISBN|page=3|}
- ^ Moser, Caroline p.3
- ^ Razavi, Shahrashoub (1). "From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse": 3.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help); Cite journal requires|journal=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Razavi, Shahrashoub (1). "From WID to GAD: Conceptual Shifts in the Women and Development Discourse": 12.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help); Cite journal requires|journal=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ Razani and Miller p.8
- ^ Moser, Caroline p.2
- ^ Razani and Miller p.12
- ^ Reeves, Hazel; Baden Sally (February 2000). Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions.
- ^ Razavi and Miller p.13
- ^ Razani and Miller p.12
- ^ Razavi and Miller p.12
- ^ Reeves and Baden p.18
- ^ Development Assistance Committee (DAC), 1998, p.7
- ^ Razani and Miller p. 30
- ^ Reeves, Hazel (2000). Gender and Development: Concepts and Definitions. Brighton. p. 8. ISBN 1-85864-381-3.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Prügl, Elizabeth (14). "If Lehman Brothers Had Been Lehman Sisters...: Gender and Myth in the Aftermath of the Financial Crisis". International Political Sociology. 6 (1): 25. doi:10.1111/j.1749-5687.2011.00149.x.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - ^ DAC Source Book on Concepts and Approaches Linked to Gender Equality. 1998. p. 9.
- ^ Reeves and Baden p.33
- ^ True, J (2012). Feminist Strategies in Global Governance: Gender Mainstreaming. New York: Routledge. p. 37.
- ^ Reeves and Baden p.33
Further Sources
- Koczberski, Sarah (1998). "Women In Development: A Critical Analysis". Third World Quarterly. 19 (3). Taylor & Francis, Ltd.: 395–409. doi:10.1080/01436599814316. hdl:20.500.11937/14444.
- Bradshaw, Sarah (May 2013). "Women's role in economic development: Overcoming the constraints" (PDF). UNSDSN. UNSDSN. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
- Robert Connell (1987). Gender and power: society, the person, and sexual politics. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-1430-3.
- Razavi, Shahrashoub; Miller, Carol (1995). "From WID to GAD: Conceptual shifts in the Women and Development discourse" (PDF). Occasional Paper. 1. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development: 1–51. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
- Irene Tinker (1990). Persistent Inequalities: Women and World Development. Oxford University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-19-506158-1.
- "About Us". World Bank. Retrieved 2011-06-16.
- March, Candida; Smyth, Inés A.; Mukhopadhyay, Maitrayee (1999). A guide to gender-analysis frameworks. Oxfam. ISBN 0-85598-403-1.
- "Shifting views of women and development". Africa Recovery. 11. United Nations. April 1998. Retrieved 2011-06-15.
- Van Marle, Karin (2006). Sex, gender, becoming: post-apartheid reflections. PULP. ISBN 0-9585097-5-1.
- World Bank. "Gender and Development Website".
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- World Bank. "Gender Events".
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Further reading
edit- Janet Henshall Momsen (2009). Gender and Development. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-77562-5.
- Lise Østergaard (1992). Gender and development: a practical guide. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07132-1.
- Raana Haider (1996). Gender and development. American University in Cairo Press.